BLACK AMERICANS IN DEFENSE OF OUR NATION A PICTORIAL DOCUMENTARY OF THE BLACK AMERICAN MALE AND FEMALE PARTICIPATION AND INVOLVEMENT IN THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA TABLE OF CONTENTS Original On-Line Page Page PART ONE GREETINGS AND BACKGROUND From the Office of the Secretary of Defense. . . . . . . . . . 1 11 Human Goals Charter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 12 Foreword from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. . . . 7 17 Introduction: the Black American Patriot in Perspective. . . . 9 18 Significant Black American Firsts in the Military. . . . . . .12 21 Famous/Noteworthy Black American Military Units. . . . . . . .15 24 Chronology of Black Americans in the Military. . . . . . . . .17 25 PART TWO THE BLACK AMERICAN WARRIORS CHAPTER I BLACK AMERICANS FOUGHT AND SERVED THEIR COUNTRY FROM COLONIAL TIMES AND SLAVERY THROUGH THE PRESENT The American Revolution (1775-1783). . . . . . . . . . . . .25 35 The War of 1812 (1812-1815). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 39 The Seminole Wars (1816-1842). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 42 The Civil War (1861-1865). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 44 The Indian Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 50 The Spanish-American War (1898). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 53 World War I (1914-1918). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 58 The Post World War I Period (1919-1940). . . . . . . . . . .55 63 World War II (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 68 Original On-Line Page Page The Post World War II Period (1946-1950) . . . . . . . . . .69 76 The Korean Conflict (1950-1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 82 The Post Korean Period (1954-1906) . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 86 The Vietnam Conflict (1960-1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83 89 The Post Vietnam Period (1973-Present) . . . . . . . . . . .87 93 CHAPTER II THE BLACK AMERICAN MAKES HISTORICAL STRIDES IN DEFENSE OF OUR NATION The Tuskegee Flyers-The Black American Becomes a Fighting Airman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 98 The 761st Tank Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 102 The Red Ball Express and the Black American Trucker During World War II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 106 The Triple Nickles-The 555th Parachute Infantry Company. . .103 109 The Black American in Space and Aeronautics. . . . . . . . .107 113 CHAPTER III THE BLACK AMERICAN IN EXPANDED SERVICES ON THE SEAS AND IN THE AIR The Black American in the United States Navy . . . . . . . .109 117 The Black American in the United States Air Force. . . . . .115 123 The Black American in the United States Marine Corps . . . .123 129 The Black American in the United States Coast Guard. . . . .129 134 The Black American in the United States Merchant Marine. . .135 140 CHAPTER IV THE BLACK AMERICAN FEMALE IN PURSUIT OF MILITARY OBJECTIVES FROM COLONIAL TIMES AND SLAVERY THROUGH- THE EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY The Black Female in the Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 143 DACOWITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 152 Original On-Line Page Page PART THREE SO PROUDLY WE HAIL CHAPTER V IN TRIBUTE TO: The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. . . . . . . . . .149 157 The First Black General in the United States Army. . . . . .155 163 The First Black Four Star General in Military Service. . . .157 166 Other Black Four Star Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 169 The First Black Female General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 172 The First Black Admiral in the United States Navy. . . . . .169 173 The First Black General in the Air Force . . . . . . . . . .171 174 The First Black General in the Marine Corps. . . . . . . . .173 176 CHAPTER VI IN RECOGNITION OF: Black Generals in the United States Army Active Duty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 179 Retired and Deceased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179 183 Black Flag Officers in the United States Navy Active Duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185 188 Retired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 189 Black Generals in the United States Air Force Active Duty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 190 Retired and Deceased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188 191 Black Generals in the United States Marine Corps . . . . . .191 194 Black Generals of the Army and Air Force Reserves. . . . . .192 195 Black Generals in the Army/Air National Guards, Active Duty.193 196 Black Generals in the Army National Guard, Retired . . . . .194 197 Original On-Line Page Page CHAPTER VII IN COMMEMORATION OF BLACK RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR During the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 201 During the Interim Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 204 During the Indian Campaigns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202 206 During the Spanish-American War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 209 During World Wars I and II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206 210 During the Korean Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 211 During the Vietnam Conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 212 CHAPTER VIII IN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF CURRENT BLACK MILITARY ROLE MODELS Army Colonels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 217 Army Sergeant Majors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 219 Navy Officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 222 Navy Chief Petty Officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 224 Marine Corps Officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 226 Marine Corps Enlisted Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223 227 Air Force Colonels and Colonel-Select. . . . . . . . . . . .225 229 Air Force Chief Master Sergeants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 233 Army/Air National Guard Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231 235 Army/Air National Guard Enlisted Personnel . . . . . . . . .233 237 Coast Guard Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 240 Coast Guard Enlisted Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238 241 Original On-Line Page Page PART FOUR BLACK MILITARY/DEFENSE ROLL CALL CHAPTER IX BLACK AMERICAN ROLL CALLS AT UNITED STATES MILITARY SERVICE ACADEMIES: Graduates and Class Lists at the Military Academy. . . . . .239 245 Graduates and Class Lists at the Naval Academy . . . . . . .251 258 Graduates and Class Lists at the Air Force Academy . . . . .265 273 Graduates and Class Lists at the Coast Guard Academy . . . .275 284 CHAPTER X STATISTICAL FACTORS ON BLACKS IN THE U. S. MILITARY . . .279 288 CHAPTER XI BLACK CIVILIAN WORK-FORCE IN THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Statistical Factors on Black Civilian Work-Force in the Department of Defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285 294 Present Black Executive Level and Senior Services Schedules.293 302 Past Black Executive Level and Senior Services Schedules . .297 306 IN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.... 309 PART ONE: GREETING AND BACKGROUND FROM THE OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE WASHINGTON, THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Dear Reader: It is an honor to recognize the remarkable contributions of Black men and women to America's security by issuing this revised edition of Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation. From the Revolutionary War to the Persian Gulf, Black Americans have forged a rich military heritage built on the strength of their convictions and the wealth of their abilities. I believe it is vital for all Americans to acknowledge and pay tribute to the patriotism, commitment, and contributions of the Department's Black military and civilian members. Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation documents the extent and diversity of their contributions -- from which we have all benefited -- and fulfills an important objective of our Human Goals Charter. Sincerely, Dick Cheney 1
Department of Defense HUMAN GOALS 2
The Secretary of Defense, shown with Deputy Secretary Atwood, signs the Human Goals Charter 3
The Secretary of Defense presents the Humans Goals Charter 4
The Secretary of Defense with members of the Department of Defense Equal Opportunity Council at the signing of the Human Goals Charter. 5 Remarks by Secretary Cheney Signing the Human Goals Charter for Military and Civilian Personnel April 17, 1990 We are here today to sign the Human Goals Charter of the Department of Defense and to pledge our commitment to it. This Charter is the foundation of our equal opportunity programs. It helps ensure fairness for the military and civilian personnel of this Department as well as for members of military families, dependents, and retirees. Originally issued in August 1969, the Charter has been subscribed to by each Secretary of Defense and the top DOD leadership since that time. It is an eloquent and comprehensive statement of the dignity, worth and rights of the individual. President Bush has called America an "opportunity society." He has reached out to include minorities, women, and people with disabilities ... persons young and old ... regardless of ethnic origin, religious preference, or other characteristics that are sometimes barriers to participation. President Bush has stated his commitment to equal opportunity for all, and it is a commitment that I share. Equal opportunity must be a fundamental part of our efforts to maintain American military strength in a changing world. During the current hiring freeze within the Department of Defense and the planned restructuring of the military departments and defense agencies, we must make every effort to avoid any disproportionate impact on any group and to continue the progress that has made this Department a model employer in this nation. We must treat every member of the defense community with consideration and fairness, and that includes military families and retirees. We want every citizen to be a full partner in our national security mission. That is our ultimate human goal. The Charter we are signing today is a symbol of our determination to achieve that goal. 6 FOREWORD: General Colin L. Powell CHAIRMAN, JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF WASHINGTON, D. C. 20318-0001 The freedoms we enjoy today are only possible because of the sacrifices of the soldiers who have served this great Nation in war at various times for over 300 years. Since 1641 there has never been a time in this country when African-Americans were unwilling to serve and sacrifice for America. Before revolutionary times and through every war to the present, Black men and women have willingly served and died for their country. During the Revolutionary War one-sixth of those who fought for freedom were black. And in every conflict since, African-Americans have worn the uniform of the United States as proudly and courageously as any other American. In every conflict we have had our heroes. Heroes like those remembered in these pages and forever engraved in our heritage. I am mindful of the sacrifices that were made by Black service men and women who suffered to create the conditions and set the stage for others to follow. They were of enormous ability and potential but, because of prejudice and intolerance, they were not allowed to make their full contribution to or receive their full recognition from this great country. I am mindful, too, that the struggle is not yet over. There is still racial intolerance in this Nation. The challenge is still before us. We have to remember the past. We must continue the struggle until all barriers have fallen -- a struggle until achievement and recognition in our society are based principally on performance. COLIN L. POWELL Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff 7 INTRODUCTION THE BLACK AMERICAN PATRIOT IN PERSPECTIVE The British call for blacks in the American colonies to fight with them in the Revolutionary War and receive their freedom from slavery as a reward seemed like a compelling reason for the blacks in the colonies to enter the war on the side of the British. The idea was unwittingly given an additional measure of support by George Washington's belief that only free white men should fight with the colonists. A number of blacks did heed the British call. However, even before the war had begun, the black slave Crispus Attucks assumed a leadership role in confronting a group of British soldiers and lost his life in the endeavor without any thought of freedom for his effort. In a like manner, there is no evidence that the blacks at Lexington, Concord and Valley Forge as well as other places had bargained for their freedom before they became involved in the war. It is easy to see that the blacks who fought in the American Revolution started a tradition of fighting and dying for their country for the sake of the country rather than seeking the personal reward of freedom in the early wars and equality in the latter ones. The goals of freedom and equality have been addressed in the aftermath of each war. Black Americans can take pride in the fact that by their actions, blacks in the American Revolution unconsciously set the stage for a philosophical belief that has endured among this nation's blacks throughout the history of American military conflict. This belief has held absolutely steady regardless of whether the enemy in such conflict was foreign or domestic. The spirit of the Black Revolutionary War participants held fast in the War of 1812 in which they fought with the Army and Navy, as well as the Civil War. The aftermath brought both the Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, granting blacks freedom from slavery, equal protection of the law and (for the black male) the right to vote. Although some 37,500 blacks died in that war, President Lincoln had made his position clear in his response to a Horace Greeley letter on August 19, 1862 in the New York Tribune in which Greeley asked to let the Civil War also become a war to free the slaves. Lincoln's position was to the effect that there would be no bargaining for freedom from slavery. Even the Emancipation Proclamation did not constitute a bargain with the slave for his/her freedom. it sought to punish those whites in rebellion against the Union. Lincoln wrote to Greeley: "If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save it by freeing all of the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some of the slaves and leaving others alone, I would do that..." In spite of such statement, considering the fact that Lincoln adhered to his 9 latter position, some 220,000 blacks joined the ranks of the Union Army and Navy and helped to pursue the war to a successful conclusion. Lincoln welcomed their participation. Those blacks, like their forebearers in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, continued in their established spirit of loyalty and devotion and fought and died for their country and its posterity in the wars that were to follow. The spirit of putting their country before their rights, as the Black Patriots had done, continued through this nation's next war, a short ten-week conflict known as the Spanish-American War. It began just two years after the United States Supreme Court in PLESSEY V. FERGUSON in 1896 approved the legal status of racial segregation and second-classedness in its ruling that "Separate but equal is constitutional." Yet, the black American, like the Black Patriot of old, showed that the concerns of the country took precedent over the concerns for himself, both as a person and as a race of people with a history of denial as old as the country itself. Twenty-two of the 330 American sailors who went down with the Battleship MAINE in Havana, Cuba Harbor which sparked the outset of the Spanish-American War were black. Black Army volunteers, like the Black Patriots in the Revolutionary War, were in that war from the beginning. However, instead of Concord and Lexington with the Colonial Militia, they gained honors in the charge up San Juan Hill with "Teddy" Roosevelt and at El Canay among their exploits. Five black soldiers and one black sailor, all volunteers, won the nation's highest military award in that war, distinguishing themselves in the manner of keeping alive the spirit that was so evident with the 5,000 Black Patriots of the American Revolution. At the outset of World War I, enemy propaganda and this nation's violence against blacks caused a momentary hesitation among many black citizens before the spirit of the Black Patriots emerged once again. The late Dr. W.E.B. DuBois, editor of the NAACP magazine, THE CRISIS, stated that spirit so pragmatically when he wrote: "THE CRISIS says, 'first your country, then your rights.' Certain honest thinkers among us hesitate at that last sentence. They say it is all well to be idealistic, but is it not true that while we have fought our country's battles for one hundred and fifty years we have gained no rights? No, we have gained them rapidly and effectively by our loyalty in time of trial. ..." Nearly half a million blacks donned uniforms and did their parts "in the war to make the world safe for democracy." In a sense, they were keeping alive the legend of the Black Revolutionary War Patriots. Of those who participated in uniform, 367,710 were drafted, but some 70,000 others volunteered in either the Regular Army, the Navy, the Reserves and/or the National Guard. For their bravery and courage, they were awarded some 75 Distinguished Service Crosses from this nation and more than 200 of France's highest military award, the Croix de Guerre. Next came the "grandaddy" of all wars fought through history, World War II. The Axis propagandists, the Socialist Party, THE DAILY WORKER, various dissident 10 groups, the usual practice of bigotry and discrimination at home, and the fact that the Japanese were seen as a brown nation, resulted in many blacks doing some soul searching before unequivocally committing themselves to the war effort. The spirit of the Black Patriots came again to the forefront at the very outset of the war when Doris Miller, a young black from Waco, Texas, who had volunteered for the Navy in 1939, distinguished himself during the Pearl Harbor attack on December 7, 1941. For his heroics on "the date that will live in infamy," Miller was awarded the Navy Cross, the second highest award of the Navy, and a destroyer escort, the USS MILLER, was named in his honor. Writing for the Office of War Information, Chandler Owens challenged those blacks who had expressed reluctance to committing themselves to an all-out war effort when he wrote: "Some Negro Americans say that it makes no difference who wins the war. They say that things could be no worse under Hitler. Those are the people who emphasize liabilities; they never appraise their assets. They magnify the bad. They minimize the good. Without underestimating the Negro's liabilities, I want to set down just what stakes the Negro has in America -- just what he has to lose under Hitler." Before the war ended, more than 1,000,000 blacks had seen some measure of uniformed service in every theater of operation, with 750,000 serving overseas. If there is any such thing as a spirit in the nature of common elements, the spirits of Crispus Attucks, Prince Estabrook, Peter Salem, Salem Poor, Prince Whipple, Oliver Cromwell, and the five thousand other Black Patriots of the American Revolution looked on with pride and satisfaction as black Americans did their parts when faced with the frozen tundra of Korea, the steaming jungles of Vietnam, the shattered compound of Lebanon and the space disaster of the CHALLENGER explosion. If at all possible, they gave a proud nod of approving satisfaction that their spirit of loyalty to the nation among blacks was still in evidence. It could perhaps be presumed that even today, the spirit and passion of those Black Patriots of the American Revolution, most of whose names will never be known, will finally be given their rightful due in the remembrance of trials and tribulations along with others who served the cause of the American Revolution. They were, without knowing it, helping to lay the foundation for statements like that of Abraham Lincoln, "that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom." The National Memorial slated to be constructed in Washington, DC, is a fitting eulogy to those unheralded souls to whom we owe so much and acknowledge so little, to their endeavors, and to their posterity. The spirit of the Black American Patriot has consistently shown itself to be a strong factor among this nation's blacks in uniform, even to the consternation of "people of color," as in the cases of Grenada and Panama when the interests and concerns of the United States of America are at issue. The information that follows in this Introduction provides evidence that the black American was an essential part of the American military effort, not only by virtue of the fact that he/she was present, but the accomplishments show the significant progress along the way. 11 SIGNIFICANT BLACK AMERICAN "FIRSTS" IN THE MILITARY LT. HENRY O. FLIPPER, US Army, first black to graduate from West Point - 1877 GEN. COLIN L. POWELL, US Army, first black to become Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff BRIG. GEN. BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, SR., first black General in the Regular Army READ ADM. SAMUEL L. GRAVELY, first black to reach Admiral status in the US Navy GOLDEN THIRTEEN, the first blacks commissioned as officers in the US NAVY 12 LT. GEN BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, JR., first black to become General in the US Air Force HON. CLIFFORD ALEXANDER, JR., first black Secretary of the Army LT. GEN. FRANK E. PETERSEN, JR., first black to attain the rank of General in the US Marine Corps BRIG. GEN. HAZEL WINIFRED JOHNSON, first black female to attain the rank of General in the US Army GEN. DANIEL "CHAPPIE" JAMES, USAF, first black to reach 4-Star status in the military. GEN. ROSCOE ROBINSON, JR., first black to reach 4-Star status in the US Army 13 CAPT. CHARLES HALL, US Air Corps, the first back American to shoot down an enemy plane CAPT. ROSCOE BROWN, first American pilot to shoot down a German jet BRIG. GEN MATTHEW A. ZIMMERMAN, first black Chaplain to attain the rank of General BRIG. GEN. MARCELITE JORDEN-HARRIS, first black female to attain the rank of General in the US Air Force MAJ. GEN. J. GARY COOPER, US Marine Corps, first black officer to lead Marines into battle in Vietnam DR. MAE C. JEMISON, first black female astronaut 14 SOME OF THE NOTABLE MILITARY UNITS WITH WHICH BLACK PERSONNEL HAVE BEEN ASSOCIATED THROUGHOUT THIS NATION'S HISTORY. First Kansas Color Volunteers - 1861 758th Tank Battalion - 1945 First South Carolina Volunteers 555th Parachute Infantry Company Third Alabama Regiment 509th and 510th Tank Battalions Third North Carolina Regiment 510th Military Police Sixth Virginia Regiment 730th Military Police Eighth Illinois Regiment 761st Tank Battalion Ninth Ohio Regiment 477th Bombardment and Composite Groups Twenty-third Kansas Regiment 332nd Fighter Group 1st Marine Depot Company 320th Anti-Aircraft Barrage Balloon 1st Chemical Company (Decon) Battalion 2nd Cavalry Division 275th Signal Construction Company 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th United States 99th and 100th Fighter Squadrons Volunteers (AAF) 52st and 52nd Defense Battalions USS MASON (USN) (USMC) PC-1264 (USN) 24th and 25th Infantries 6888th Central Postal Battalion 41st Engineers Ethiopian Regiment - 1775 31st, 47th and 48th Quartermaster Regiments Rhode Island "Bucks of America" 76th and 77th Coast Artillery Connecticut "Colonials" 92nd and 93rd Divisions - 1914-1918 Battalion of Free Men of Color-1812 369th, 370th, 371st and 372nd Cincinnati's Black Brigade Regiments 54th Massachusetts Infantry (Colored) 341st Field Artillery Regiment - 1919-1941 17th Regiment, US Colored Volunteers 366th Infantry Regiment 9th and 10th Cavalries - 1866 Field Artillery School Detachment Seminole/Negro Indian Scouts Army War College Detachment Engineering School Detachment Medical Detachment, USMA Medical Detachment, Fort Huachua 15 CHRONOLOGY OF BLACK AMERICANS IN THE MILITARY JANUARY Jan 1st, 1863 New Years Day. President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Jan 3rd, 1944 All-black 332nd Air Unit entered the War in Europe. Jan 9th, 1918 The 10th Regiment rode the last cavalry charge against Indians. Jan 12th, 1954 Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson announced desegregation of schools on military bases. Jan 13th, 1863 First Kansas Colored Volunteers were mustered. Jan 15th National Holiday: Martin Luther King's Birthday. Jan 16th, 1776 Continental Congress accepted Washington's proposal to enlist free blacks. Jan 16th, 1954 Army announced blacks with special skills to be as signed to all units. FEBRUARY February Black History Month. Feb 1st, 1966 Thomas D. Parham, Jr., became first black chaplain to receive Navy captain's rank. Feb. 2nd, 1948 President Truman issued a message to Congress stating that segregation in the military should end. Feb 8th, 1971 Navy announced destroyer escort to be named in honor of Ensign Jesse L. Brown, first black Navy Aviator. Feb 12th Abraham Lincoln's Birthday Feb 12th, 1948 First black nurse is integrated into the Regular Nurse Corps. Feb 22nd George Washington's Birthday. 17 Feb 23rd, 1944 Navy announced that two anti-submarine ships will be manned by all-black crews. (USS MASON and PC1264) Feb 27th, 1946 Secretary of Navy, James Forrestal announced Black Naval personnel are eligible for all assignments. Feb 28th, 1917 America enters World War I against Germany. MARCH March 3rd, 1869 Black Infantry Regiments, 38th and 41st were consolidated to form the 24th Infantry. The 39th and 40th Regiment consolidated into 25th Infantry Regiment. March 5th, 1770. Crispus Attucks was among the first to die in the Boston Massacre (Beginning of the Revolutionary War.) March 7th, 1942 First Black pilots received commissions in the Air Corps. March 8th, 1945 Phyllis Mae Dailey is sworn in as the first Black nurse in the Navy Nurse Corps. March 13th, 1865 South passed bill to enlist Blacks in the Confederate Army. March 15th, 1971 Defense Secretary Laird, announced program to end discrimination. Department of Defense established Race Relations Institute. March 17th, 1944 First group of Black men commissioned as Naval Officers. (Golden Thirteen) March 20th, 1944 First Naval vessel with a predominately Black crew was commissioned. (USS MASON) March 24th, 1945 Black pilots participated in a raid over Berlin. (332nd Fighter Squadron) March 25th, 1917 Washington D.C. Guard was activated to guard Nation's Capital. Black unit was included. March 25th, 1941 Squadron of Black Aviators was activated. (99th Pursuit Squadron) March 27th, 1950 Army abolishes Black enlistment quota. 18 APRIL April 1st, 1952 Army European Command announced integration plan. April 7th, 1942 Navy Secretary Frank Knox advocated acceptance of blacks in general services. April 13th, 1945 Restrictions are lifted on the number of Black personnel to be assigned to Navy vessels. April 14th, 1944 Ensign Joseph Jenkins commissioned as first Black Coast Guard officer. April 15th, 1776 John Martin enlisted in the Continental Marines (aboard the REPRISAL) as the first Black Marine. April 16th, 1943 1st Marine Depot Company sent overseas as first Black unit in World War II. April 19th, 1974 Sgt. Major Gilbert H. Johnson became first Marine to have facility named in his honor. April 24th, 1943 99th Pursuit Squadron attached to 33rd Fighter Group in North Africa. April 28th, 1971 Samuel L. Gravely became the first Black admiral in the history of the United States Navy. MAY May 1st, 1941 275th Construction Company established as first Black Signal Corps Unit. May 8th 1945 World War II ended in Europe. May 12th, 1917 Army established Black Officer's Training Base in Des Moines, Iowa. May 13th, 1846 Blacks participated in combat during the Mexican War. May 15th, 1918 Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts became first Americans to receive the French Medal of Honor. (The Croix de Guerre) May 15th, 1942 Army activated the All-Black 93rd Division. 19 May 19th, 1968 Prairie View A&M College established first Black Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps. May 20th, 1775 Union decided to allow free Blacks to participate in the Revolutionary War; slaves were rejected. May 22nd, 1863 Bureau of Colored Troops was formed by the War Department May, 1975 Lt. Donna P. Davis became the first black woman physician in the history of the Naval Medical Corps. MEMORIAL DAY National Holiday celebrated on the fourth Monday. JUNE June 1st, 1941 First Black Tank Battalion was activated. (758th) June 1st, 1942 Marine Corps opened enlistment to Blacks. Blacks were allowed to enlist in the Navy in positions other than stewards. June 1st, 1943 Army Air Corps formed the third Black air unit. (The 477th Bomber Group) June 1st, 1949 All-Black 332nd Fighter Wing is integrated into the Regular Air Force. June 3rd, 1949 First Black graduated from the Naval Academy. (Wesley A. Brown) June 6th, 1944 All-Black 320th Anti-Aircraft Barrage Balloon Battalion participated in the D-Day Invasion. June 12th, 1943 William Pinckney received Navy Cross for heroism during the Battle of Cruz Island. June 15th, 1877 First Black graduated from West Point.-Henry O. Flipper June 17th, 1775 Peter Salem, a former slave, shot the British Officer who ordered the firing on the Minutemen at Lexington. June 21st, 1951 Sergeant Cornelius H. Charlton was awarded posthumously the Medal of Honor, the first Black to receive the award since the Spanish American War. 20 June 23rd, 1946 First group of Black Officers were integrated into the Regular Army. June 23rd, 1949 Secretary of the Navy Francis Matthews announced equality for all Navy and Marine personnel. June 25th, 1950 Korean War began. June 28th, 1861 Tennessee passed legislation authorizing enlistment of free Blacks between the ages of 15 and 50. JULY July 1st, 1941 Army integrated Officers' Candidate School. July 1st, 1948 Black Colleges established ROTC Programs. July 2nd, 1943 Black Pilots downed their first enemy aircraft over Italy. (99th Pursuit Squadron) July 4th National Holiday: Independence Day July 8th, 1944 War Department outlawed discrimination in recreation and transportation facilities on all Army Bases. July 15th, 1779 Pompey Lamb participated in the capture of Stony Point by General Anthony Wayne. July 16th, 1862 Congress authorized Black enlistments. July 19th, 1941 Tuskegee Institute began Black Air Training Program. July 20th, 1942 Black women were accepted into the Women Auxillary Corps. (WAC) July 20th, 1950 All-Black 24th Infantry Regiment won first United States victory in Korea. July 21st, 1951 Army announced that the 24th Infantry would be integrated into the Far East Command. July 23rd, 1945 Government made appeal for qualified Black women to join the WAVES. July 28th, 1866 Congress passed provision to form the All Black 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments, and 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry Regiments. 21 July, 1974 Army commissioned the first female chaplain in the Armed Forces. (Rev. Alice Henderson) July, 1974 Five Black women were among the first group of female cadets at the Merchant Marine Academy. AUGUST August 7th, 1918 German Army tried to encourage members of the 92nd Division to desert, by spreading propaganda on the battle front. August 20th, 1953 Secretary of the Navy Robert Anderson ordered desegregation of facilities on Naval shore installations. August 21st, 1968 First Black Marine posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. (PFC James Anderson, Jr.) August 24th, 1942 Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. became the Commanding Officer of the 99th Pursuit Squadron. August 29th, 1778 All-Black Connecticut Regiment distinguished itself in battle against German mercenaries fighting for the British. August 31st, 1943 The USS LEONARD ROY HARMON became the first Naval vessel commissioned/named for a Black person. August, 1975 General Daniel "Chappie" James became the first Black Four Star General in Military History. SEPTEMBER LABOR DAY National Holiday: First Monday Sept 1st, 1967 Navy Bureau of Personnel established the Minority Officers Recruitment Effort. Sept 2nd, 1945 World War II ended in the Pacific. Victory over Japan. VJ-Day. Sept 12th, 1813 Commodore Oliver H. Perry won a victory reversing earlier criticism against the effectiveness of Black Sailors. (Battle of Lake Erie) 22 Sept 21st, 1814 General Andrew Jackson called upon Blacks to aid in the defense of New Orleans. Sept 21st, 1872 First Black admitted to the US Naval Academy. (John H. Conyers) Sept 28th, 1972 Sergeant Major Edgar R. Huff became the first Black to complete thirty years of service as a Marine. OCTOBER Oct 1st, 1951 The 24th Infantry Regiment was deactivated. Oct 1st, 1952 First Black Marine pilot was commissioned. (Frank E. Petersen, Jr.) Oct 13th, 1942 The 332nd Fighter Group was activated. Oct 15th, 1942 The 92nd Division was activated. Oct 19th, 1944 Black women were informed that they will be admitted into the Navy. (WAVES) Oct 20th, 1950 The 9th and 10th Cavalries were converted into the 509th and 510th Black Tank Battalions. Oct 23rd, 1948 First Black Aviator was commissioned in the Navy. (Ensign Jesse Brown) Oct 24th, 1917 All-Black 92nd Division was formed. NOVEMBER Nov 11th National Holiday: Veterans Day Nov 13th, 1942 Leonard Roy Harmon was awarded the Navy Cross for heroic action aboard the USS SAN FRANCISCO, in the Solomon Islands. November National Holiday: Thanksgiving - Fourth Thursday 23 DECEMBER Dec 4th, 1950 Ensign Jesse L. Brown became the first Black to receive the Navy Distinguished Flying Cross. Dec 7th, 1941 Dorie Miller, a Black mess steward in the Navy, said to have shot down four Japanese airplanes in the attack on Pearl Harbor. (Received the Navy Cross) Dec 23rd, 1814 Blacks were a part of General Andrew Jackson's defense force in the Battle of New Orleans. Dec 25th National Holiday: Christmas Dec 25th, 1776 Prince Whipple crossed the Delaware with George Washington. Dec 26th, 1944 Directive issued for Black volunteers to be integrated into white units within Allied Strike Forces. Dec 27th, 1917 369th Infantry Regiment was the first Black unit overseas. 24 PART TWO: THE BACK AMERICAN WARRIORS CHAPTER I BLACK AMERICANS FOUGHT FOR AND SERVED THEIR COUNTRY FROM COLONIAL AND SLAVERY TIMES THROUGH THE PRESENT THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775-1783) Figures show that 500,000 blacks were counted among the 2,500,000 colonists by the time of the beginning of the American Revolution. As insignificant as their roles might have seemed during the French and Indian War and the many encounters with the Indians, blacks had proven themselves to be capable fighters. This had little or no value since they were not wanted in the Continental Army. Even their performance at Lexington and Concord at the outset of that war where they fought with the "minute men" had done nothing to enhance their quest to become involved in the young Revolutionary War. Thus, they were denied an opportunity to become a part of the newly formed "regular Army." It would appear that since the blacks realized that this war was for concepts of freedom, liberty and equality, nothing was going to diminish their fervor to join the ranks of those whites who were prone to pursue the causes espoused in that war. A review of the black Americans' action during that war shows without a doubt that they wanted to play a role. The black American's role in the Revolutionary War actually started five years before the war began. On March 5, 1770, a crowd of angry Boston citizens confronted a group of British soldiers, protesting the manner of taxation and other actions which the British had put into practice. As the apparently leaderless crowd vented its rage against the British soldiers who were charged with seeing to it that the laws of England were obeyed by the colonists, an escaped slave by the name of Crispus took control of the protest action and confronted the British soldiers directly. Private Hugh Montgomery of the British Regulars raised his weapon and fired upon the angry crowd. The black slave Crispus was struck by the first volley and he fell dead at the feet of the British soldiers. Crispus Attucks thus became the first American to die in what became the cause of the American Revolution. Four whites were also killed in the encounter. These five men were buried in an integrated grave in the Boston Commons. The Crispus Attucks Statue and
The black slave, Crispus Attucks, was the first to die in the Boston Massacre, March 5, 1770 25 Monument are visited by thousands of people annually as a Boston attraction. When the war began on April 18, 1775, blacks did participate in the first skirmish and in other battles throughout the war. The fear that armed blacks might be tempted to either revolt against their masters or that they might join the ranks of the British was a factor of great concern among the colonists. The expected revolt did not occur, but many blacks did join the British ranks. This was especially true when the British promised them their freedom if they joined them.
The Crispus Attucks Monument in the Boston Commons On September 24, 1775, John Adams wrote in his diary: "They say if one thousand regular (British) troops should land in Georgia and their commander provided them with arms and clothes enough, and would proclaim freedom for all Negroes who would join his camp, 20,000 Negroes would join it from the two provinces (Georgia and South Carolina) in a fortnight... so that all the slaves of the Tories would be lost as well as those of the Whigs." (Charles Francis Adams, THE WORKS OF JOHN ADAMS, Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1856, Vol II, page 428). Many colonists had feelings such as those expressed by Adams, but that did not change their attitudes about blacks being armed and fighting in the American Revolution. In May of 1775, barely one month after blacks had fought at Lexington and Concord, the Committee for Safety of the Massachusetts Legislature presented a legislative resolution that read: "Resolved, that it is the opinion of this Committee, as the contest now between Great Britain and the Colonies respects the liberties and privileges of the latter, which the Colonies are determined to maintain, that the admission of any persons, as soldiers, into the army now raising, but only such as are freemen, will be inconsistent with the principles that are to be supported, and reflect dishonor on the colony, and that no slaves be admitted into this army, upon any consideration whatever." That position, however, was not shared by the British, who were suffering from severe manpower shortages. On November 7, 1775, John Murray, the Earl of Dunmore, issued a proclamation which stated: "...and I do hereby further declare all intented (sic) servants, Negroes and others, (appertaining to Rebels) free, and that are able and willing to bear arms, they joining His Majesty's Troops, as soon as may be, for the more speedily reducing of the colony to a proper sence (sic) of their duty, to His Majesty's crown and dignity." One month later, almost three hundred blacks, with "Liberty to Slaves" inscribed on their uniforms, were mem- 26 bers of Lord Dunmore's "Ethiopian Regiment." In that same month, George Washington authorized recruiting officers to sign up free Negroes "desirous of enlisting." Slave participation, however, was prohibited at this time, and it was reinforced by Washington's General Orders of February 21, 1776. The British promise to give freedom to any blacks who joined them began to pay dividends. The colonists responded by allowing black slaves to serve as "substitute soldiers" for their masters. In another response the colonists issued a bold threat to those blacks who chose to join the British. The threat stated: "Should there be any among the Negroes weak enough to believe that Lord Dunmore intends to do them a kindness and wicked enough to provoke the fury of the Americans against their defenseless fathers and mothers, their wives, their women and their children, let them only consider the difficulty of effecting their escape and what they must expect to suffer if they fall into the hands of the Americans." (Laura Wilkins, THE NEGRO SOLDIER; A SELECTED COMPILATION, p. 45) Nevertheless, the Colonial position and the British gesture played right into the hands of the British as the number of blacks willing to take that chance continued to increase. It is estimated that some 1,000 black slaves received their freedom upon escaping and serving behind the British lines. Although it was becoming obvious that the increasing colonial need for manpower was a problem for the Continental legislature, the colonial position was not making many changes with regard to the free black, and certainly the black slave. On December 30, 1775, Washington wrote: "As the general is informed, that a number of free Negroes are desirous of enlisting."
The Battle of Bunker Hill also involved black patriots 27 On January 16, 1776, Congress resolved that "free Negroes who have served faithfully in the Army at Cambridge may be reenlisted therein..." (John C. Fitzpatrick, WRITINGS OF GEORGE WASHINGTON, Volume IV, Government Printing Office, 1944, page 194). Washington's initial feeling that only "free whites" should serve in the Continental Army was slowly undergoing some changes. This was occasioned more by circumstances and need rather than a change of heart. Alexander Hamilton had suggested that "Negroes will make very excellent soldiers with proper management." He added, "Extraordinary exigencies demand extraordinary means." (Alexander Hamilton, Ibid). In that same year (1779) six hundred slaves and free blacks from the French West Indies joined in the siege of British Forces on the French Garrison of Savannah, Georgia. Also in that same year, half of the force that drove the British from Louisiana was black. The issue of using blacks as soldiers had been resolved after Valley Forge when Washington's troop strength was dangerously low. Not only did he welcome free blacks, but slaves were also utilized without complaint during the latter stages of the war. The story of the black American's participation in the War for Independence, as some called it, shows with unmistakable clarity that blacks were in the war from the beginning through its end. For example, Salem Poor was cited for bravery at Bunker Hill and went on to serve with George Washington at Valley Forge. Jack Sisson was among the 40 volunteers who staged a commando raid on General Prescott's Headquarters at Newport, Rhode Island. James Armistad was a black spy who worked out of the headquarters of General Lafayette. Prince Whipple and Oliver Cromwell accompanied George Washington when he crossed the Delaware. Edward Hector fought bravely in the Battle of Brandywine in 1777. James Robinson was a Maryland slave who fought at Yorktown and was decorated by General Lafayette. By 1778, each of General Washington's brigades had an average of 42 black soldiers. To state matters briefly, it is a known historical fact that blacks fought in almost every major battle from Bunker Hill to Yorktown. Maurice Barboza, a strong advocate of recognition of black heroes in the Americal Revolution, has led a long and difficult fight to a successful determination for a monument in the nation's Capital in honor of the 5,000 black patriots who served this country in that war. Mr. Barboza has been instrumental in getting support from almost all quarters of the spectrum of American life in this endeavor. It is significant to note that The Sons of the American Revolution emerged as one of his strongest support groups. ----------------------------------- President approves legislation for memorial to black patriots Black patriots to get Revolution memorial Black patriots win Mall memorial site ----------------------------------- Headlines showing the honoring of black Revolutionary War patriots. 28 THE WAR OF 1812 1812-1815 The War of 1812 was basically a naval war, and the manpower need was mostly in the army. It was not expected that this country would be involved in another war so soon. Therefore, it came as no great surprise when in 1792 Congress passed a law restricting service in the military to "each and every free and able-bodied white citizen of the respective states." (Bernard C. Nalty and Morris McGregor, BLACKS IN THE MILITARY: ESSENTIAL DOCUMENTS, p. 13.) In 1798, the Secretary of War wrote to the commander of the Marine Corps that "No Negro, mulatto or Indian is to be enlisted." (Nalty and McGregor, ibid.) When war started again in 1812, blacks were still excluded from the Army and the Marines. They had not been excluded from joining the Navy.
Impressing black and white American seamen was a factor in the cause of the War of 1812. It was therefore in line with standard policy when the blacks' attempts to volunteer for service in the Army and the Marines were not allowed. However, when Louisiana became a state in 1812, the legislature authorized the governor to enroll free black landowners in the militia. The group of black militia men known as Free Men of Color had been refused voluntary service in the territorial militia in 1803, but was allowed to enlist as a battalion in 1812. The commanding officer was white, but three of its lieutenants were black. New York became the first northern state to seek participation by blacks in the War of 1812 when approximately two thousand blacks, slave and free, were enlisted and organized into two regiments. The slaves were promised their freedom after the war. The war had officially ended before another black battalion which had been organized in Philadelphia saw any action. According to Nalty and McGregor, "It had been the War of 1812, frustrating and unpopular" which produced manpower crisis that compelled the American armed forces to call upon free blacks to sustain their ranks, particularly in the Navy. (page 40) The distinguishing action of black soldiers in this war came in the Battle of New Orleans (even though the war was officially over). The city had been threatened by the British, but local residents steadfastly refused the services of 29 the Battalion of Free Men of Color. Andrew Jackson insisted that the offer be accepted. The United States prevailed in this unnecessary battle, and the blacks had been a factor. Their contribution was soon forgotten and they were denied permission to participate in the annual parades celebrating the victory in the Battle of New Orleans. This was not the case with the Navy. While it is impossible to determine exactly how many blacks fought with the United States Navy in the War of 1812, some sources estimate that between ten and twenty percent of the Navy at that
Black sailors fought with Commodore Perry in his victory on Lake Erie. time was black. When Perry won his great victory on Lake Erie, at least one out of every ten sailors on his ship was black. That was the naval action in which one commander had complained that he was being sent too many blacks. The impressment of American sailors by British ship captains was one of the several reasons why this war had come about in the first place. Since so many American blacks were slaves, the British felt that taking blacks from American ships would be tolerated. Thus, many blacks were taken aboard British ships. America saw this as a denial of freedom of the seas.
Black sailors fought with Commodore Perry in his victory on Lake Erie. 30
Free (black) Men of Color helped Andrew Jackson win the Battle of New Orleans 31 THE SEMINOLE WARS (1816-1842) Throughout the history of the existence of what is now the United States, the black Americans have always made themselves available to the military in times of both peace and war. There have been times when they were fighting on both sides of a "declared" war as in the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812 and the Civil War. There have been times when their presence was felt on the "other" side as in the First and Second Seminole Wars. In terms of times spent in such wars, the blacks spent fifteen years in wars in which they were on both sides and ten years in which they were on the "other" side. In terms of years spent in wars in which they were on the "American" side exclusively, there have been twenty five years spent in such wars -- Spanish- American War, World War I, World War II, The Korean Conflict and the Vietnam Era War (1960-1973). While thousands of blacks went to great pains to enlist in the Colonial and the young American Armed Forces during times of military conflict, a significant number of black slaves took advantage of the prevailing confusion occasioned by military conflict and escaped into British and (later) Spanish Florida. Both England and Spain refused to return these runaway slaves to their masters and owners. General Andrew Jackson who had willingly accepted the assistance of black militia units in the Battle of New Orleans, led an expedition into Florida to capture runaway slaves. Blacks who had settled with the Indians and intermarried with them had established themselves as farmers and elements of a protective militia. They provided much of the resistance to Jackson's troops. It was at this point that blacks became engaged in warfare with the Americans, against the American whites. For a considerable period of time, the blacks and Indians fought a very effective war against Jackson's regulars. However, that effectiveness decreased. When "Colonel Nichol's Army" of Indians and runaway slaves lost "Fort Negro," their stronghold, to the American Regulars in 1816, the fortunes of war went downhill for them. After three years of fighting (1816-1819), Spain ceded its Florida territory to the United States and the First Seminole War ended. The general opinion prevailed that the defeat of "Colonel Nichol's Army" would bring peace to the area, and the whites could settle and live there unmolested. That was not to be the case. Peace only lasted for a short period of time. The Second Seminole War began sixteen years after the First Seminole War ended. This war, which was fought 33 to remove the Seminole Indians from Florida because they posed a barrier to the settlement of whites in the area, lasted for seven years. Free blacks, who had permanently settled with the Indians and runaway slaves who had found a stronghold of freedom, became the core of the Indian resistance in this war. These blacks consisted of from one-fourth to one-third of the warrior strength which fought the regulars in the forced removal war. Very few blacks were counted among the American regulars. Both the slaves and the free blacks had a working knowledge of the American language, value system and idioms. They also had some idea of American military tactics. They and their Indian allies were masters of the art of hit-and-run forays and surprise attacks. They engendered a seven-year war
Osceola, Chief of the Seminoles that was very costly to the United States in both resources and finances. Some 2,000 soldiers were killed, and the war cost the government between forty and sixty million dollars. This prolonged war was additional proof that blacks could fight, and generate and execute military initiatives. It also showed that they possessed leadership qualities in military endeavors. Perhaps more than anything else, it helped to reinforce the fear in the minds of many whites that it was indeed dangerous to arm blacks and teach them military techniques and tactics. It was still remembered by whites that Gabriel Prosser had attempted a slave revolt in Richmond, Virginia in 1800 and Denmark Vessey had attempted one in Charleston, South Carolina in 1822. It was against this background that the Army Ordinance of 1820 which prohibited "Negroes or Mulattoes from enlisting" began to be strictly enforced.
Negro Abraham (center) served as interpreter for the Seminole Indians in their 1825 negotiations with the United States in Washington, D.C. 34 THE CIVIL WAR (1861-1865) Just as there are many twists to the arguments with regard to just what caused that war in the first place. Many of the twists and arguments still prevail more than one hundred years after that war has ended. Some things, however, can be attributed to that war. In addition to the solidarity of the American union of states as one national entity and the freedom of the black from slavery and involuntary servitude, the American black emerged as a military source. The participation of the American black in the Civil War was anything but a general conclusion at the beginning of that war. That participation came about as a result of a combination of events and circumstances, the most notable being an acute military manpower shortage. On November 6, 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected the sixteenth President of the United States, having defeated John C. Breckenridge, John Bell and Stephen A. Douglass. Less than six weeks later, on December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union. South Carolina's secession was followed by those of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana, all in the month of January. On February 1, Texas left the Union. In his March 4th Inaugural Address, Lincoln made it perfectly clear that he had no intention or legal right to interfere with the "institution" of slavery in those states "where it now exists." It could be argued that Lincoln's speech had some impact upon states that were undecided about seceding from the Union. However, on April 12 and 13, 1861, Confederate General Beauregard ordered the bombardment of Fort Sumter. When the Fort returned the fire on the 14th of April, the Civil War had begun. On the very next day, Lincoln issued his proclamation calling for "The First 75,000": "Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, in virtue of the power in me vested by the Constitution and the laws, have thought fit to call forth, and hereby do call forth, the militia of the several states of the Union, to the aggregate number of seventy-five thousand..." (Carl Van Doren, THE LITERARY WORKS OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN, New York: The Press of the Readers Club, 1942.) With the calling for these troops, the Civil War was now a factor of reality. However, it was made clear that none of the 75,000 was to be members of the Negro race. This position was taken because those in authority envisioned a short war, and they saw no practical use for black troops. Lincoln was also cautious that those border states that had not seceded from the Union would not become angry by the use of black troops and come into the conflict on the side of the Confederate States. The Union leadership seemed to drastically underestimate the depth of Confederate resolve. There was also a reluctance to have blacks put under arms to kill white men. 35 Some of Lincoln's generals had no such reservations. In 1861, General John C. Fremont issued a proclamation of emancipation in Missouri, paving the way for the use of blacks in the war. (Samuel D. Richardson, MESSAGES AND PAPERS OF THE PRESIDENTS, Vol. VI, pp. 107-108.) General David Hunter raised a regiment of black soldiers off the coast of Georgia. Senator James H. Lane accepted blacks in two volunteer Kansas units.
Civil War recruitment poster urging blacks to join the Union Army Lincoln had made it clear that "This War Department has no intention at present to call into service of the Government any colored soldiers." However, a disappointing call for volunteers in 1862 forced him to consider drafting as an alternative to using black troops. A War Department Order to Secretary Edwin Stanton on August 4, 1862 decreed that a draft of 300,000 militia be immediately called into service for nine months or sooner. (Richardson, Ibid.) 36 Pressure for the employment of black troops continued to mount to the point that Secretary Stanton issued orders that blacks could be used in limited capacities. The intent was to use blacks primarily in the construction of forts, bridges and other facilities.
Some 30,000 blacks served in the integrated Union Navy. On September 22, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation (to become effective in 100 days) to the effect that on January 1, 1863 slaves in states and designated parts of states that were in rebellion against the Union shall be thence forward and forever free. (Richardson, Ibid.) In his proclamation, he opened the door for the participation of blacks in the military in the statement that: "And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable conditions will be received into the armed services of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places and to man vessels of all sorts in said service." (Richardson, Ibid., pp. 157-158.) Soon after the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, the Governor of Massachusetts raised the 54th Massachusetts (Colored) Volunteer Infantry Regiment. In May of 1863, the War 37 Department created a Bureau of Colored Troops to handle the recruitment and organization of black regiments. The officers of such regiments were to be white. The units were to be mustered into service immediately and were to be known as United States Colored Troops (USCT). New York organized three volunteer regiments. Although the war had begun in 1861, it was not until May, June and July of 1863 that black units participated in any major engagements. They fought at Port Hudson and Millekins Bend in Louisiana and at Fort Wagner, South Carolina. Black privates were paid $10.00 per month, with $3.00 of that deducted for clothing. White privates were paid $13.00 per month with an additional $3.50 for clothing. The Massachusetts 54th did not accept any pay for a year in protest against that policy. Equal pay was not achieved until 1864. There was a significant black male response to Frederick Douglass' appeal for "Men of Color, to Arms!" As the number of blacks began to increase dramatically, the abolition of slavery began to emerge as a new war objective. The increased number of black soldiers resulted in the realization of one of Lincoln's greatest fears. That fear had been that black soldiers would not be accorded any of the civilities by the Confederate Army as either combatants or captives. Lincoln was right. On July 30, 1863, the President reflected upon "the duty of every government to give protection to its citizens, of whatever class, color or condition, especially those duly organized as soldiers in the public service." (Richardson, Ibid., p. 177.) Lincoln stated further: "It is therefore ordered, that for every soldier of the United States killed in violation of the laws of war a rebel soldier shall be executed, and for every one enslaved by the enemy or sold into slavery a rebel soldier shall be placed at hard labor on the public works and continued at such labor until the other shall be released and receive the treatment due a prisoner." As the manpower shortage among Lincoln's troops became even more acute, he ventured a calculated risk in the recruitment of slaves and former slaves from the neutral states of Maryland, Missouri (and Tennessee). His rationale was that these black soldiers would be used to give relief to white soldiers. Slave owners would also be compensated for the use of their slaves. In his Third Annual Message, on December 8th, he said: "...of those who were slaves at the beginning of the rebellion, full 100,000 are now in the United States military service, about one-half of which number actually bear arms in the ranks, thus giving the double advantage of taking so much labor from the insurgent cause and supplying the places which otherwise must be filled with so many white men." Continuing his speech, he said, "So far as tested, it is difficult to say that they (black troops in combat) are not as good soldiers as any." From 1864 through the end of the war, the number of blacks actively participating in the conflict grew rapidly. In addition to those in combat, an additional 38 number saw service as teamsters, laborers, dock workers, and pioneers. There were less than 100 black officers. The myth about blacks lacking leadership qualities was put to rest at Chapin's Farm in September of 1864 when thirteen black non-commissioned officers received the Medal of Honor. All were cited for taking command of their units and leading them in assaults after their white officers had been either killed or wounded. Of the 1,523 Medals of Honor awarded during the Civil War, twenty-three were awarded to black soldiers and sailors. The nearly two years that blacks participated in all phases of the Civil War resulted in heavy casualties. By 1865, over 37,000 black soldiers had died, almost 35 percent of all blacks who served in combat. Major Martin R. Delaney was the highest ranking black officer in the Union Army during the Civil War. President Lincoln referred to the Harvard trained officer as "the most extraordinary and intelligent black man." (William L. Katz, EYEWITNESS: THE NEGRO IN AMERICAN HISTORY, Pittman Publication Corporation: New York, 1967, p. 147.) Other blacks held higher rank than Delaney during the period of Reconstruction, but they were not in the Regular Army. Each of these was from South Carolina except a brigadier general from the state of Louisiana. The others were: Major General Robert B. Elliott Brigadier General Samual J. Lee Brevet Brigadier General William B. Nash Brigadier General Joseph Hayne Rainey Brigadier General H. W. Purvis Major General Prince Rivers Major General Robert Smalls Brigadier General William J. Whipper There is evidence that blacks served in the Confederate Army, but several factors such as fear that, once armed, they would turn against their masters, and the pride of Southerners made such recordkeeping uncommon. The eminent historian John Hope Franklin wrote: "On March 13, 1865, a bill was signed by President (Jefferson) Davis which authorized him to call on each state for her quota of 300,000 additional troops, irrespective of color, on condition that slaves be recruited from any state should not exceed 25 percent of the able-bodied slave population between (ages) eighteen and forty-five." (John Hope Franklin, FROM SLAVERY TO FREEDOM: A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN NEGRO, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967, p. 289.) Many blacks were cited for bravery and acts of valor during the Civil War, both soldiers and sailors. The names of William Carney, Robert Smalls, John Lawson, Christian Fleetwood, Harriet Tubman and Susan King Taylor are but a few of those who will forever be associated with the black American's service to this nation during the Civil War. 39 Unidentified Union soldier Black Union Army Corporal Another unidentified Union soldier Black Union Army Sergeant 40 THE INDIAN CAMPAIGNS (1866-1890) Two months after the Civil War had ended, there were approximately 122,000 black troops on active duty. However, a year later, in June of 1866, there were only 15,000 black troops in the army, almost all from the South. The Ninth and Tenth Cavalry and the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Infantry Regiments which were created during the Civil War, had survived military cutbacks and they remained through World War I. With regard to the black troops in the South, the Federal Government felt that the stationing of black troops in the South would help to insure the stability of the area. It was also felt that such a move would also prevent white Southerners from attempting to return to their pre-war lifestyles. The presence of black troops in the area seemed to have been met with a great deal of animosity from many of the local residents. On January 12, 1866, General Grant responded to Senator Wilson's proposal to reorganize the Army. Grant stated, "I have recommended that the president should be authorized to raise 20,000 colored troops if he deemed it necessary, but I do not recommend the permanent employment of colored troops. ...I know of no objection to the use of colored troops, and I think they can be obtained more readily than white ones." (NATIONAL ARCHIVES, WASHINGTON, DC) The refusal of black troops to revert to pre-war servility was a primary reason for much of the tension in the area. This tension resulted from the mere fact that they were there. Senator William Saulsbury of Delaware went on record before the 39th Congress on July 9, 1866 when he said: "If the Army of the United States will take them (black soldiers) among themselves and provide in the bill (proposed by Senator Wilson) that they should be stationed in their section of the country, I have no objection; but if the object is to station them in my state, I object." It would seem that after the Civil War and the Period of Reconstruction had ended, the black soldiers would have experienced a measure of relative calm. That, however, was not to be the case. Successive reorganizations of the Army resulted in a similar reduction of black troops, to six regiments in 1866 and to four in 1869. Each of these black regiments, two cavalry and two infantry, was to have all black enlisted men and white officers. These units were broken down into battalions and companies and scattered across the Western frontier to garrison posts, guard the mail, protect railroad workers, suppress the hostile Indian tribes and protect settlers who were moving west. They were given rejected horses, inadequate rations and deteriorating equipment. Boredom and monotony were their constant companions. Local townspeople usually refused to serve them once an area had been made secure from Indians and bandits. They complemented their poor rations with buffalo 41 meat. The Indians of the area referred to the black soldiers as "Buffalo Soldiers." In spite of the constant conflict with cowboys (and others), the hostile climate and problems with enraged Indians who resented their enroachment of their lands, the morale of these black troops was very high and they enjoyed the lowest desertion rates of all Army units.
Frederic Remington's pen and ink sketch of a black cavalryman In their more than one hundred battles with Indian warriors, for their bravery and valor, these "Buffalo Soldiers" won eighteen of the three hundred and seventy Medals of Honor awarded for this particular aspect of American conflict. First Sergeant Emanual Stance of the 9th Cavalry was the first American black to receive the Medal of Honor for acts of valor during the Indian Campaigns. In December of 1887, the body of First Sergeant Stance was found on the road to Crawford, Nebraska, with four bullet wounds in him. It was speculated that he had been the victim of his own men. Except for Major Delaney who received his special commission from President Lincoln, the record indicates that no other black served as an officer in the Regular Army until 1877 when Henry Ossian Flipper graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point. It was no surprise that he was assigned to the Tenth Cavalry, one of the four black units remaining in the Army. Lieutenant Flipper, a black officer in a unit that had been proclaimed to have all white officers, found himself under constant pressure during the four years he served with the unit. His insistence upon acting like an officer of the United States Army instead of a black officer who should have appreciated the honor of being an officer caused Flipper to be administratively discharged from the Army in 1881 for "conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman." In December of 1976, at the behest of the first black graduate from the United States Naval Academy, Commander Wesley A. Brown and historian Ray O. McCall, the circumstances surrounding Flipper's less than honorable discharge were reviewed and action was taken. An honorable discharge was issued in his name. In 1977, through the effort of Mr. H. Minton Francis (Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Equal Opportunity), the United States Military Academy dedicated a memorial bust and alcove in the cadet library in honor of Lieutenant Flipper on the 100th Anniversary of his graduation. 42
Second lieutenant Henry O. Flipper, first black to graduate from West Point In disavowing any assertion that he had been party to negative reflections regarding black soldiers, General W. T. Sherman wrote to Secretary of War J. D. Cameron on March 1, 1877: "...I have watched with deep interest the experiment of using black as a soldier made in the Army since the Civil War, and on several occasions been thrown in with them in Texas, New Mexico, and the plains. General Butler misconstrues me as opposed to the blacks as soldiers for I claim them equality in the ranks as in civil life...whereas they now constitute separate organizations with white officers. ... I advised the word "black" be obliterated from the statute book, and that Whites and blacks be enlisted and distributed alike in the army. (NATIONAL ARCHIVES)
A Frederic Remington sketch of black calavrymen on the plains. 43 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898) Twenty-two black Americans went down with the United States Battleship MAINE when it was sunk in Havana (Cuba) Harbor on the night of February 15, 1898. A.A. Cromwell, Chief of the Navy Department's Bureau of Navigation reported on April 8, 1898 that three hundred and thirty sailors had been lost when the ship sank (Richardson, MESSAGES AND PAPERS OF THE PRESIDENTS, Vol X, p. 153). This meant that almost nine percent of the deaths among American sailors were black. While that incident helped to precipitate the War with Spain, it was nearly two months later that the United States actually issued the declaration of war. In the interim, America's blacks found themselves divided upon which psychological position to support as the talk of war was rampant. The Declaration of War was issued on April 25 and approved on April 26. Many American blacks were sympathetic with the Cubans who were rebelling against the Spanish, but a larger The Battleship "Maine" is seen entering Havana Harbor on the morning of January 24, 1898, three weeks before it was sunk in that harbor. 45 Interment of the victims of the "Maine" in Arlington National Cemetery number of American blacks were convinced that an all-out patriotic effort would help the race win the respect of the American whites. In this war, as in those that had preceded it and those that would follow (except Korea and Vietnam), the black American would face numerous obstacles before he would be allowed to fight and die in the interest of his country. Since blacks had generally been barred from entering the State militia units, several states had to organize volunteer units for them. The Third Alabama, the Third North Carolina, the Sixth Virginia, the Ninth Ohio, the Eighth Illinois and the Twenty-third Kansas Regiments were among the volunteer units that were organized in such manner. Due to the brevity of the ten-week war, only the Ninth and Tenth Cavalry and the Twenty-Fourth and Twenty-Fifth Infantry Regiments saw combat as black units. Although Congress had authorized ten black regiments for this war, the Ninth and Tenth Cavalry and the Twenty-Fourth and Twenty-Fifth Infantry Regiments were in the war from the beginning. The Seventh and Eighth Regiments were organized in line with the authorization, but only the Ninth and Tenth Regiments survived the various reductions and reorganizations for any length of time. In his Second Annual Message to Congress on December 5, 1898, President William McKinley reported to Congress that, "On the second (of July) El Caney and San Juan were taken after a desperate charge..." (Richardson's MESSAGES AND PAPERS, etc, Vol. X, p. 170.) No mention was made by the President with regard to which units were involved. The publication stated that: "The Tenth Cavalry garnered honors at the Battle of Las Guasimas and at El Caney. The Twenty-Fifth Infantry also fought at El Caney, and the Twenty-Fourth Infantry helped in the assault on San Juan Hill." (p. 28) While the Ninth and Tenth Regiments were (horse) cavalry, they are not seen in combat actions on their horses. That was because they came to Cuba on one ship and their horses were put aboard another. They were pressed into combat before their animals arrived; they therefore went into action and served as combat infantry troops. As the short war came to a decisive end, black Johnny came marching home from a war on foreign soil for the first time. Of the fifty-two Medals of Honor that were awarded in the Spanish American War, five were issued to black soldiers and one was awarded to a black sailor. The issue of the black American in uniform continued to be highly con- 46 troversial. Perhaps one of the most widely acclaimed incidents involving black Americans is alleged to have occurred at Brownsville, Texas on the night and early morning of August 13 and 14, 1906. The incident grew out of reports that on August 12, black soldiers had pulled a white woman's hair, and that on August 12 and the following nights, shots were fired in town by black soldiers from three companies stationed outside of Brownsville. Black troops, under the command of colonel Teddy Roosevelt, in action in the Spanish American War. As the culmination of subsequent action, President "Teddy" Roosevelt ordered the administrative discharging of 167 men, of whom most had fought with him in Cuba. They were given the administrative discharges which were not categorized as dishonorable. They were however, barred from military reenlisting and from receiving any manner of military pensions. This caused the split between President Roosevelt and Booker T. Washington. Although Senators Joseph B. Foraker of Ohio and Morgan G. Bulkeley of Connecticut demonstrated that no soldiers of the Twenty-Fifth Infantry could have committed the Brownsville act, it was not until 1972 that the Army corrected the records and awarded honorable discharges in the names of the men. The black Americans who served in the United States Navy also played important parts in the Spanish-American War. While their feats were not as pronounced as those of the soldiers, it is a fact of history that the feats of Admiral Dewey were not as recognized as those of Colonel Teddy Roosevelt. As indicated previously, one black sailor did receive the Medal of Honor. 47 Members of the Twenty-Fifth Infantry Regiment in Cuba during the Spanish American War Black veterans of the Spanish-American War 48 WORLD WAR I (1914-1918) When the United States issued its declaration of war against Germany on the 6th of April in 1917, the American black was once again put in a position to become involved in his/her continuing struggle to fight and die for those cherished ideals of democracy. Since this was the war "to make the world safe for democracy," what, then, could be better for this long denied black citizen than giving her/his all in the name of making democracy safe for all people. President Abraham Lincoln had created the Bureau of Colored Troops (USCT) during the Civil War; the door had been partially opened for a few black males to acquire a measure of security and social recognition by becoming a part of the American military. In spite of the reluctance of a number of this nation's blacks to initially become committed to the conflict, World War I afforded the blacks the rare opportunity to kill two birds with one stone: fight for democracy in an international war; and, expand the basis of their economic security and the social stability that the military offered. Emmett J. Scott, Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (Newton D. Baker) for Negro Affairs wrote: "When the war against Germany was declared on April 6, 1917, Negro Americans quickly recognized the fact it was not to be a white man's war, nor a black man's war, but a war of all the people living under the Stars and Stripes for the preservation of human liberty throughout the world." As a matter of fact, Dr. Scott was responding to German propaganda which had taken aim at the black discontent that had resulted from practices in race relations in this nation. One of their propaganda leaflets that was made available to blacks said in part: "Just what is democracy? Personal Freedom, all people enjoying the same rights socially and before the law. Do you enjoy the same rights as the white people in America, the land of freedom and democracy, or are you treated... as second-class citizens? Can you get a seat in the theater where the white people sit? Can you go into a restaurant where white people dine? ... Is lynching and the most horrible crimes connected therewith a lawful proceeding in a Democratic country? "Why, then, fight the Germans only for the benefit of the Wall Street robbers and to protect the millions they have loaned to the British, French and Italians?" These propagandists made it a point to comment on each of the lynchings of a black person with the remark: "THIS LYNCHING WAS NOT MADE IN GERMANY" The black American, although disturbed by the messages being received from the enemy, gave his loyalty to the United States, and there were not many who thought differently. In his famous "close ranks" editorial in THE CRISIS, W. E. B. DuBois said to the black Americans: "First your country, then your rights." 49 Twelve days before America entered the war, President Wilson had preferred a segregated battalion from the District of Columbia National Guard to protect power plants, railway bridges, Federal buildings, and several other strategic places. General Harvey's rationale in selecting the First Separate Battalion, District of Columbia Infantry was: "In this battalion, there are to be found no hyphenates. In fact, the Negro has always proven himself to be 100 percent American, without alien sympathies and without hyphenate sympathies. When World War I began, blacks in uniform numbered some 20,000. The six black regiments that had fought so gallantly with the Union Army during the Civil War had been reduced to four: the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry. These were augmented by segregated National Guard units in New York, Ohio, Illinois, Tennessee, Maryland, Connecticut, Massachusetts and the District of Columbia. Conference of black editors and publishers who met in Washington to pursue the cause of full black American participation in World War I. 50 Black draftees arriving at an induction center in the United States Black soldiers marching off to battle in France six months later 51 These units were brought up to full strength for the war, generally doubling them in size, and 367,710 blacks were also drafted. Of this number, most of them saw no combat duty in Europe. A pressing need for black officers was quite evident during this time. At the outset, there were very few black officers. Six hundred thirty nine black officers graduated from officer training school and were commissioned at Fort Dodge, Des Moines, Iowa on October 14, 1917. One hundred forty thousand black soldiers were in France during World War I; 40,000 of them saw actual combat. Tradition had always adhered to the policy started during the Civil War that no black unit larger than a regiment be formed. Tradition, however, was broken when on November 29, 1917, the War Department authorized the creation of the first black division, the 92nd Division. The 365th, 366th, 367th and 368th Infantry Regiments were designated the core of this division. Due to the fear of having too many black soldiers in any one place in the country, the 92nd Division was scattered out in seven different locations across the nation. It never came together as a division until one brief moment in France. Even then, its core units were assigned to the French 2nd and 4th Armies. Nevertheless, the units of this division compiled an excellent combat record, in both valor and objectives achieved. Most of its officers were black. Fourteen black officers and forty-three enlisted men at the Division level were cited for bravery and awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Combat units of this black division consisted of two brigades, four infantry regiments, three field artillery regiments, one engineer regiment, three machine gun battalions, one field signal battalion, one supply train, one ammunition train, one sanitary train and one military police unit. The successes of the 92nd Division led the War Department to envision a second black division: the 93rd. Just as the 92nd had its four core infantry regiments, the 369th, 370th, 371st and 372nd Infantry Regiments were designated as the core of this division. However, unlike the 92nd Division, the 93rd was not actually formed at this time. The four infantry regiments were, instead, assigned to the French command and that is how they fought throughout the war. One of these regiments, the 369th, became the most famous and well-known of any black unit in the war. Its Henry Johnson was the first American, black or white, to receive France's Croix de Guerre. His heroics became legendary. Johnson's act of valor was acknowledged by former President, "Teddy" Roosevelt, who included Alvin York and eight others in his book of World War I heroes. Another of those so honored by Mr. Roosevelt was Parker Dunn who, like Johnson, was from Albany, New York. One hundred seventy officers and men of the 369th were awarded the French Croix de Guerre or the Legion of Honor; twenty one officers and men of the 370th were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and 68 of its men were awarded the Croix de Guerre. 52 The 371st also compiled a commendable record. Ten black officers and 12 enlisted men received the Distinguished Service Cross. Thirty four black officers and 89 enlisted men received the Croix de Guerre, and one officer received the French Legion of Honor. The 372nd, overseas only ten months, also compiled a record in evidence of its service. One of its officers and 23 of its enlisted men are identified as having been awarded the Croix de Guerre. One black sailor, Seaman Edward Donohue of Houston, Texas won the French Croix de Guerre for action aboard the USS MOUNT VERNON when it was torpedoed off the coast of Cherbourg. Initial acknowledgements on the performance of black soldiers in World War I were full of praise and glory. However, as the records of performance of these soldiers were taken as the basis for what use to make of blacks in the event of another war, many of those who had given the blacks glowing reports changed their opinions. The record, however, stands for itself. Black soldiers in combat action in France during World War I. Most of these soldiers fought alongside French soldiers, under the French command, using French weapons and equipment. 53 Most black American soldiers were assigned service and supply duties during World War I. Sergeant Henry Johnson, the first American soldier of either race to win France's highest award for bravery in combat, rides down New York's Fifth Avenue in a February 1919 homecoming parade for the 369th Infantry Regiment. 54 THE POST - WORLD WAR I PERIOD (1919-1940) The period following World War I and preceding World War II can be viewed in many ways as important as the war periods themselves. The three primary topics involving blacks in the Army following World War I were: the assessment of the black soldiers' performance during that war; the status of the black officer as a military leader; and, the use and deployment of the black soldier in the mobilization plans and employment in the event of a future war. The Navy, the Air Corps and the Marines had no such problem. For all practical purposes, the Navy had stopped recruiting blacks during this period. The Air Corps had always been all-white and no plans were underway to change that. The Marines had made it clear during the period when George Washington was President that it barred "Negroes, Indians and mulattoes" from enlisting among its ranks. The fate of the black as a serviceman was therefore in the hands of the Army. Among blacks, those questions took on a different point of focus in both feelings and expressions. Since the Army had provided a type of life that gave blacks a measure of social recognition and economic security, it was a common practice for many of them to take advantage of its membership in order to partially escape the restricted range of social options open to them. The military constituted a "special class" among blacks, allowing them to escape some of their "Negroness." Even so, the lives and experiences of blacks in the military can be viewed in many ways as a reflection of the lives and experiences of blacks in American life in general. In commenting upon the regional idiosyncracies about blacks in his book, AN AMERICAN DILEMMA, the late Gunar Myrdal discussed blacks, after World War I, as if the United States was one country and the South was another. Yet, the black American's patriotism was never in doubt in the face of much provocation, especially German propaganda during World War I. In writing his "Close Ranks" editorial in THE CRISIS in September of 1918, W.E.B. DuBois had spoken for the vast majority of this nation's blacks when he urged black Americans to ignore the German propaganda as he said to them, "First your country, then your rights." Most of the nearly half-million blacks under arms in World War I had been assigned service and supply, including the 1,353 black officers, nine field clerks and 15 Army nurses. That was, however, not the whole story of the black American's participation in that war. Thousands of black soldiers did engage the enemy in combat, and they proved to a doubting and skeptical nation that they could fight as well as any other soldiers. In spite of their hundreds of medals and citations for bravery and valor, they were still 55 strapped with the image that "a Negro serviceman is still a Negro." That position was challenged by many who had the credentials to speak authoritatively on the subject. The armed services mentality held fast to its assertion that the American military had a military function; it was not a sociological testing ground. It soon became obvious that such position was not going to change any time in the near future. With the statue of Booker T. Washington in the background, Major General Walter R. Weaver delivers the inaugural address for the opening of the Air Corps School at Tuskagee, Alabama, for training black pilots and support personnel. For example, the Army had "assessed the worth and value of the Negro as a combat soldier," and it had determined that his future as a combat soldier was at best low-level. The black soldier had been marked for service-type assignments. In the face of these assertions, blacks were becoming more and more convinced that in the event of further military conflict, the Army would contrive to limit or restrict them to labor units. The one sure thing that came out of the assertions was that there definitely would be no place for black officers. The general contention was that the ineffectiveness of the black officer had made it impossible for black troops to function appropriately. In 1919, Columbia University President Nicholas Murray Butler put forth a resolution praising black soldiers of World War I with the statement that, "No American soldier saw harder or more constant fighting and none gave better accounts of themselves. When fighting 56 was to be done, this regiment (the 369th) was there." (THE INDEPENDENT AND HARPER'S WEEKLY, XCVII, February 26, 1919, p.286) Numerous others joined in with Mr. Butler in praising black soldiers who had paraded so pridefully down New York City's Fifth Avenue, but their accolades were muted by others. In 1925, Major General Robert L. Bullard, Commander of the American Second Army, wrote in his memoirs: "If you need combat soldiers, and especially if you need them in a hurry, do not put your time upon Negroes. If racial uplift is your purpose, that is another matter." (Major General Robert L. Bullard, PERSONALITIES AND REMINISCENCES OF WAR, New York: Doubleday Page, 1925, Chapter XXX.) Other memoirs of a similar nature followed those of General Bullard and doubts about the future of blacks having careers in the American military. With regard to General Bullard's letter, there were voices of dissent. General Ballou, Commander of the (black) 92nd Division attempted to set the record straight when he wrote of the mitigating circumstances that contributed to the difficulty associated with black officers. He wrote: "The Secretary of War gave personal attention to the selection of white officers of the highest grades, and evidently intended to give the (92nd) Division the advantage of good white officers. This policy was not continued by the War Department. The 92nd was made the dumping ground for discards, both white and black. Some of the latter were officers who had been eliminated as inefficient from the so-called 93rd Division. "...College degrees were required for admission to the white camp, but only high school educations were required for the colored, many of these high school educations would have been a disgrace to any grammar school." (Excerpts of letter President Franklin D. Roosevelt made history when he organized his "black cabinet" to deal with affairs affecting black people. Mrs. Mary McLeod Bethune, a black female, was prominent among the members of that organization. 57 to Assistant Commandant, General Staff; Army War College, March 14, 1920, NATIONAL ARCHIVES.) Further reductions in the Army resulted in the overstaffing of black units with black non-commissioned officers because there was no other place for them to go. When elements of the Tenth Cavalry and the 25th Infantry were broken up to supply blacks for the Air Corps which did not enlist blacks, there was a loud protest from the black community. General George Van Horn Moseley, Deputy Chief of Staff responded to the protest by stating that "In the adjustment of our military program, the fact is there just isn't enough Army to go around." The problem of the employment and deployment of black troops continued to be a problem for Army planners. They developed the 1922 Plan which called for 10.37 percent of the Army to be black. Then there was the 1937 Plan which specified that blacks could have to be included in any mobilization plan. This resulted in the creation of the Mobilization Regulations which identified the names of Army units to which blacks would be assigned and the number of blacks to be assigned to each of those units. As the clouds of war and war itself darkened the European continent, the American posture became one in which it was no longer a question of whether or not blacks would be utilized in the nation's war effort, but how many would be utilized and where would they be deployed? Mobilization Regulations set the percentage of black troops from each of the Mobilization Corps Areas as follows: First Corps Area 1.26 percent Second Corps Area 4.26 percent Third Corps Area 11.25 percent Fourth Corps Area 33.37 percent Fifth Corps Area 6.45 percent Sixth Corps Area 4.25 percent Seventh Corps Area 5.58 percent Eighth Corps Area 10.52 percent Ninth Corps Area 1.03 percent It was at this point that the country began to concentrate its energies on the expansion of the military in the preparation for war. The long history of racial discrimination came to the surface as blacks began to make demands for better opportunities in the military as well as in the war production industry. W.E.B. DuBois spoke with regret about his Close Ranks editorial during World War I. THE DAILY WORKER was attempting to create apathy among this nation's blacks on the basis of the discrimination they faced. A. Philip Randolph was to threaten and plan his March on Washington for a greater share of the war preparation economics for blacks. Chandler Owens was to prepare a paper on THE NEGROES AND THE WAR in an attempt to encourage blacks to more fully support the war preparation effort. President Roosevelt would sign Executive Order 8802, providing for equal opportunity in the war effort. The Selective Service Draft had been initiated and its Manpower Regulations had decreed that racial discrimination would not be 58 acceptable. World Heavyweight Boxing Champion Joe Louis would go into the Army and proclaim, "We're gonna win -- because we're on God's side." The Navy and the Marines had opened their doors to blacks through the draft, even though the Navy's blacks could only serve in the messman branch and those in the Marines would get combat training to perform service functions under racially-segregated conditions. On April 30, 1940, Congressman Hamilton Fish had the statement inserted into the Congressional Record that: "Ninety-nine and one-half percent of American Negroes are loyal American citizens." On October 25,1940, Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. of New York's 369th Regiment was appointed this nation's first black General of the Regular Army. In August of 1939, there were 3,640 blacks in the Army, but by November 30, 1941, that figure was 97,725. One year after the Pearl Harbor attack, there were 467,833 blacks in the Army. Perhaps the most profound aspect of the expansion program that brought hundreds of thousands of blacks into uniform was the advent of blacks in the Signal Corps, the Air Corps and most notably, blacks in combat pilot training at Tuskegee, Alabama. The all black 369th National Guard Regiment was mustered into the regular army eleven months before Pearl Harbor. 59 WORLD WAR II (1941-1945) The war that had begun in Europe on September 1, 1939 when Hitler unleashed his blitzkreig against Poland, reached across the seas and engulfed the United States on December 7, 1941 with the Japanese surprise air attack on Pearl Harbor. The Black American made an auspicious entry into that war when this nation's first hero of Pearl Harbor became a black high school dropout from Waco, Texas by the name of Doris (Dorie) Miller. Miller joined Peter Salem and Salem Poor of Lexington and Concord in the beginning of the Revolutionary War and the 22 black sailors who went down with the battleship MAINE in Havana Harbor in Cuba as the precipitating incident that set the stage for the War with Spain. These blacks, however, were participants, not heroes. Doris Miller was a genuine hero; his acts of valor were well beyond the call of duty. This messman, as were all black American sailors at that time, braved strafing enemy planes to help to remove his mortally wounded Captain to a place of greater safety. Not content with that act of valor, this mess attendant continued to defer death aboard the sinking ship when he manned a machine gun on the water-covered deck and fired it with deadly accuracy at the attacking Japanese aircraft. There was as much valor in the manner of his nature as in the commission of his deeds. Miller was initially ignored, being identified only as "a Negro cook who fired at Japanese planes." In the face of a strong civil rights protest he was identified and presented with a letter of commendation. After another protest to more fully recognize him as a hero, his letter of accommodation was upgraded to a Navy Cross which was personally presented by Admiral Nimitz. Doris Miller's has been the most frequently mentioned name associated with the attack on Pearl Harbor. After his Pearl Harbor heroics, Miller continued in the service of his country. He saw further combat aboard a heavy cruiser in the South Pacific and was a favorite speaker at war bond rallies across the nation when he was on leave. Black shipbuilder at Norfolk Navy Yard, Norfolk, Virginia 61 He and 644 of his shipmates were lost at sea in the Gilbert Islands on Thanksgiving Day in 1943 when the vessel on which he was serving was sunk by Japanese torpedoes. A destroyer escort was later named in his honor. Miller was not the only black messman who became a hero during World War II and had a naval destroyer escort named in his honor. Both Leonard Harmon and William Pinkney were blacks who received similar honors. Eli Benjamin was also a black messman who is recognized as a World War II hero. Black artillerymen fire on German positions in 1944. Once the war was underway, it became a total American effort. The black American fought socially, politically and psychologically to become involved in all aspects of the American war effort. It was frustratingly slow and painfully demoralizing to be called upon to fight for freedom and democracy under conditions that are discriminatory in nature and segregationist in practice. The War Department responded to complaints in this matter by stating that "The policy of the War Department is not to intermingle colored and white enlisted personnel in the same regimental organizations." (U. S. Lee, THE EMPLOYMENT OF NEGRO TROOPS, Washington; Government Printing Office) The black sailor engaged the enemy in any place or battle that involved the American Navy. The problem was that they were in combat operations, but they were not permitted to operate any of the weapons of war. That was also the initial position generally taken by the Army. However, there were exceptions. The black 24th Infantry Regiment left the United States for Guadalcanal four months after Pearl Harbor. Its primary responsibility was perimeter defense while still undergoing combat training. Only one battalion from the 24th was in combat situations; the remainder of the regiment was either loading and unloading ships or building roads and defensive fortifications. All of the officers of the 24th Infantry were white. This was the only infantry unit with all white officers, a condition that prevailed until the first month in 1944. This unit General Eisenhower speaks with ammunition handlers in France shortly after D-Day, 1944. 62 was attached to the 37th Division and later assigned to the 148th Infantry. Sergeant Alonzo Douglas of Chicago was credited as being the first black American infantryman to kill a Japanese soldier in the Solomon Islands. (Ibid.) The 93rd Division was the only black division to see service in the Pacific. Some of its units saw action, but since it never was assembled as a division, many of its units performed other types of duties such as loading and unloading ships, building roads and doing guard duty. Some of the units from the 93rd along with the 25th Regimental Combat Team and the 24th Infantry formed the core of black combat units at Bouganville. They were assigned to the 54th Coast Artillery which served as a field artillery unit. Each of these units saw some combat action. Upon leaving Bouganville, the 25th Regimental Combat Team and most of the other units of the 93rd Division performed security and perimeter defense services. They were eventually replaced with the 3rd Marine Defense Battalion. Black Marines had been trained for combat on the same basis as white Marines, but like the black soldiers, they, too, would see mostly limited action. As a general practice, they served in munition companies, depot companies and composite companies and battalions. Black Marines were introduced to the Corps as racially segregated service men and they served as racially segregated units throughout World War II. Several of these units were in engagements with the enemy, but never on the large-scale basis that they had been led to believe would occur. Accordingly, the black Marine hero did not actually emerge except the tough non-commissioned officer or drill instructor. In that all of the fighting was done "over there," black stevedores who loaded and unloaded ships and trucks, black truck drivers who carried supplies and materials in and out of combat zones, Seaman Doris Miller of Waco, Texas, the nation's first World War II hero at Pearl Harbor, has Navy Cross pinned on his chest by Admiral Nimitz aboard the USS Enterprise. 63 and black engineers who built roads and docks played a major role in the war effort as service and supply soldiers. Yet, the role of black soldiers was not restricted to such services. Not enough can be said about the drivers of the Red Ball Express who sped along the roads of Europe to supply soldiers with the essentials of war. Their exploits are legendary, as are the exploits and contributions of this nation's most famous black combat unit: The Tuskegee Flyers. These "Lonely Eagles" as they called themselves, proved to the world that blacks could fly in combat with the best of the pilots of any nation. They began as the 99th Pursuit Squadron and ended up as the 99th Fighter Squadron and several other squadrons, including bomber squadrons. Nearly one hundred of them received the Distinguished Flying Cross. Colonel Lee Archer shot down five enemy aircraft, three in one engagement and two in another. They served only in the European and North African Theaters, meaning that they were always pitted against the more experienced German flyers. They shot down many more enemy planes than they lost. Although they were never used in combat situations, the black 555 Parachute Unit was trained to the point that no one doubted their efficiency if they had been called upon to fight. It was most disappointing to these elite soldiers when their first mission to jump during the war was to help fight a forest fire in the state of Oregon. They were very disappointed at not being called upon to play a more meaningful role in the war. Although no black ground combat troops participated in the initial onslaught when the Allied Armies invaded Europe on June 6, 1944, black participation was evident, especially in the days immediately after the invasion. The 320th Barrage Balloon Battalion was present for the initial assault; it was considered one of the best in Europe. Their skill and daring in the use of helium-filled balloons as an obstacle to enemy aircraft action was essential to the success of the invasion effort. Accordingly, they were there on D-Day. Early on the morning of June 6, they dug in with the (white) First and Twenty-Ninth Infantry and set up a protective shield against enemy air attacks. Ten days after D-Day, the black 333 Field Artillery Battalion landed on the beaches and its members helped in the inward sweep by the Eighth Army Corps. The 969th Field Artillery Battalion received a Presidential Citation for its actions at Normandy and many other places. The 777th Field Artillery Bat- Black soldiers in the jungle at Hollandia, Dutch New Guinea, in 1944. 64 talion and the 999th Field Artillery Battalion distinguished themselves in several battles. The 761st Tank Battalion, the first black unit to go into combat action, fought in six European countries: France, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany and Austria. Twenty-two black American combat units served in the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe during World War II. General Patton's call for black volunteers to staff an experimental desegregated fighting force was answered by many blacks who served so well that the integrated fighting force became a reality in the American military. The black female served overseas in England and Liberia. They could not go into any theater unless specially approved by the theater commander. Black females also served in the Army Nurse Corps during the war. Several blacks received every other military award given by this nation for valor and bravery, but not one black American service person received the Medal of Honor for any type of action during World War II or for World War I. This is not true for any other American military conflict. Black soldiers of the 93rd Division on a jungle trail in the South Pacific These nine black petty officers were commissioned from the ranks by the U.S. Navy during World War II. 65 Lt.Gen. M.J. Savlan, commanding General of a Russian Tank Corps, resents the Order of the Soviet Union, 1st Class, to Sgt. Marcon H. Johnson of the 23rd Infantry Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division. 3rd US Army, at ceremonies held in Czechoslavakia. Soldiers from Quartermaster Truck Company being presented Bronze Star Medals by Brigadier General John L. Pierce Former dogcatcher George Thompson of Nashville, Tennessee, becomes the first black Marine recruit. 66 Black combat soldiers are pinned down by enemy fire in Europe in 1945. Black war correspondent speaks with black combat corpsmen in France, 1944. 67 Black female officers inspect a WAC battalion in England during World War II Lieutenant C. D. "Lucky" basks in the aftermath of having shot down three German planes on July 18, 1944. 68 POST - WORLD WAR II ERA (1946-1950) The ending of World War II in an Allied victory found and left the United States in a mood of hilarity and joy. Actually, this nation had emerged as unquestionably the most powerful nation on earth, both economically and militarily. Its cities had not been bombed; its factories were still standing; its currency was still strong. Each time that there had been a war in the past, it had been left up to officials in charge of the government and the military to determine what manner of appreciation should be extended to blacks. Although there had been some changes in the aftermath of these wars, such changes had been seen by blacks as outcomes due to the nature of the times rather than expressions of thanks and appreciation. This time it was going to be different. Ironically, the armed forces did not dispute the blacks in their claims that they were greatly dissatisfied with the use that had been made of black service personnel during that war. There were others, both in and out of government, who saw no reason for the dissatisfaction by blacks. They were well aware of the fact that most blacks had been relegated to service-type functions, and these officials saw nothing wrong with that. While World War I had been hailed as "the war to end all wars," no such euphoria prevailed for the victors after World War II. Military planners took an immediate interest in manpower needs and the most effective use of that manpower in the event of another war. Since World War I had been fought without the unifying force of a Department of Defense, the Army and the Navy had fought as somewhat independent entities. The Army had its Air Corps and the Navy had its Marine Corps and its Coast Guard. It was therefore left up to the Army and the Navy to take the steps that they considered expedient in the assessment of the effectiveness of black military personnel and make plans for their most effective utilization in the event of another war. The Army conducted a worldwide survey of commanders of the main Army Commands and asked them to critique the performance of black soldiers. The Navy took a different course. It utilized Lester Granger, Executive Director of the Urban League, and had him conduct a survey among commanders of commands where noticeable numbers of blacks had served. Since the Urban League was a civil rights organization, the Navy approach did not engender the stinging criticism that the Army method engendered. While Army commanders were critical of most black units in combat situations, both service branches adopted new racial policies in 1946. The Army's policy was set forth in War Department Circular 124, in which continued racial separation of its forces 69 was suggested. The Navy's policy was put forth as Bureau of Naval Personnel Circular Letter 48-46. It promised impartial treatment of black Naval personnel in an integrated service. However, since only a very few blacks would be allowed to remain in the Marine Corps, the Navy circular did not apply to the Marines. In expressing their strong opposition to Army policies or practices that they did not like, blacks had assured themselves that they would not be ignored in post-war considerations. Blacks pointed out that of the 2,463,000 blacks who registered for the military draft, some 949,000 saw service in the Army alone. They also pointed out that while 53 percent of blacks from all but 12 Southern states completed from one to four years of high school, the figure for all of the nation's whites was 62 percent. These and other comparisons helped blacks insist that something was wrong with the manner in which they were used. All assessments of the performance of blacks in World War II were suspect unless such assessments had given due consideration to the many disadvantages President Truman meets with his "black cabinet" to discuss racial inequities in the military. (Note Mrs. Mary McLeod Bethune is also a member of this committee.) 70 suffered by the blacks, not only in military services but also in life preparation which was also a facet of military preparation. For example, each of the early black Naval heroes had been a messman. Yet neither of them performed any heroic act in conjunction with their regularly assigned duties. Also, the attempt to pacify white Southerners by keeping as many Northern blacks as possible out of Southern military facilities resulted in situations where many blacks were assigned according to geographic areas of residency rather than on the basis of interest or ability. The net effect of this policy was that many of the better educated blacks from the North were assigned to low-level service type duty to keep them in the North, while many of President Truman meets with Mr. Fahy and other members of the Fahy Committee to discuss their mission in the integration of the United States Armed Forces. 71 sibilities in the South that required higher levels of education that many of them had been able to acquire. Those practices resulted in low morale on the part of Northern blacks and low performance on the part of Southern blacks. Since assessments did not take these and other facts into account, the black soldier was subjected to an unfair assessment. Perhaps the prime example was the black fighter pilots who were introduced into combat flying the outdated P-40. They destroyed a total of 261 enemy aircraft and damaged 158. They flew a total of 1578 missions with the 12th and 15th Air Forces. They received 95 Distinguished Flying Crosses, 14 Bronze Stars, 744 Air Force Clusters, one Legion of Merit, one Silver Star, two Soldier Medals and eight Purple Hearts. Of the 992 pilots who graduated from this training center, 450 were sent overseas and 66 were killed in action. They were accorded the praise of never having lost an American bomber to enemy aircraft when they were flying escort service for bombing missions deep into Europe. Yet, a memorandum from the Director of the Special Planning Division to the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces wrote on May 23, 1945 stated: "The overseas performance of the Negro Air service group was unsatisfactory." (Nalty and McGregor, BLACKS IN THE MILITARY: ESSENTIAL DOCUMENTS, p. 177.) In an earlier reference to the above, the memorandum had stated, "The Negro combat flying units performed creditably -- limited by the lack of initiative on the part of Negro pilots and the unsatisfactory maintenance of aircraft." (ibid.) The Navy Paper (48-46) had spelled out specifically that: "(1) Effective immediately, all restrictions governing the types of restrictions placed on Negro Naval personnel are eligible to be lifted. (2) Henceforth they shall be eligible for all types of assignments in all ratings in all activities and all ships of the naval service. ...(4) In the utilization of housing, messing, and other facilities, no special or unusual provisions will be made for the accommodation of the Negro." The Marine Corps, while under the Navy, was exempt from the provisions of Paper 48-46, but it was stated by the Navy that the Marine Corps which had 17,135 blacks in its ranks at that time would reduce that number to 4,800. In its integration plan, the Navy had stated that ships shall have no more than ten percent black personnel assigned. The Marine Corps had placed all of its organizational functions into nine basic categories, with the stipulation that no category shall have more than ten percent blacks among its personnel. The segregationist policies of the armed services were under attack from all quarters of the black community. Paramount in the minds of blacks was the idea that they would not be arbitrarily dismissed from the services now that the war had ended. They were also concerned that those blacks remaining would not be restricted to service-type duties. An August 6, 1948 memo from General Omar Bradley to General W. S. Paul stated that, "Present Negro strength of the Department of the Army is 72 62,000... This represents 12 percent of the army strength which is above the level established by the Gillem Board (ten percent)." At another point the memo stated, "The army is popular with Negroes as evidenced by the Negro strength, in spite of quotas and AGCT (Army General Classification Tests) limitations. The ten percent policy is understood by all. Segregation after enlistment is the crux of the problem." (General Bradley, Ibid.) With regard to the integrated Navy, a disproportionate number of blacks was still in the messman branch. Dispersement of blacks and greater utilization of them in the expansion of the Air Force also became items of concern in this newest branch of the American military. On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 which proclaimed: "(Whereas) it is essential that there be maintained in the armed services of the United States the highest standards of democracy, with equality of treatment and opportunity for all who serve in our country's defense,... The President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services was established as a result. To that end, President Truman appointed Charles Fahy chairman of the committee. Fahy's task was to lead the committee in determining ways to implement the new policy on equality of treatment and opportunity. Fahy announced that his first mission would be to purge the armed forces of segregation and quotas. President Truman agreed for each branch of the service to superintend its own procedure of providing for the implementation of Executive Order 9981 without outside interference. The Fahy Committee, as it was called, retained its charge to make sure that implementation was brought about in an effective manner. Its first action in this regard was to make recommendations to the Navy. It then took a look at the recently created Air Force and gave it some direction. Since the Air Force as a separate branch of the American military was new, the task of recommending some appropriate steps was somewhat easier. The committee's next step was to once again take a look at the Navy in which Secretary Johnson had succeeded Secretary Forestal. Forestal seemed to have been inclined to favor complete integration and equality of opportunity and treatment to a greater degree than Secretary Johnson. After some initial conflict, the Navy program began to proceed. This time the Marine Corps was included. The Committee took its longest and most comprehensive look at the Army. Realizing that the Army was the largest of the military branches and generally the least selective of its members, the Fahy Committee took great pains to bring about compliance with the President's Order. As a matter of fact, so much attention was given to the Army that many thought that the Fahy Committee was dealing exclusively with the Army. As equality of opportunity and treatment in the military began to emerge more as a concept of reality, the effects of its meaning and implications reached into the National Guard, the Reserves and the various ROTC units. It was not 73 The integration of the armed forces meant that there would be no more black air corps flying units such as this bomber crew. realized at that time, but the "new" American military would soon be called upon to take its first test in Korea. Complete integration of the armed forces had mandated, even though inadvertently, that the black units of the past would be gone forever. This meant that there would be no more black 99th Fighter Squadron, no black 332nd Group and no more black truck battalions and companies, anti-aircraft units, infantry divisions and black sections on military bases. It also meant that blacks would no longer be automatically assigned to service-type units. It also meant that in the event of further military conflict, blacks would begin to share a more equitable proportion of battle casualties. If this was to be the price for equality of treatment and opportunity, blacks entering the "new" military service would be willing to pay that price. In June of 1949, there were 106 black units still in existence. However, one year later, that number had decreased to only 24 units. In a like manner, in July of 1949, some 14,609 blacks were assigned to black units. By May of 1950, that number had been reduced to 4,675. 74 THE KOREAN CONFLICT (1950-1953) Five months after the Fahy Committee had presented its conclusions, elements of the Chinese Army swarmed into South Korea and the United States had entered another war. The January 1950 Fahy Committee Report had done much to provide for the integration of the American military, and for the implementation of its provisions of equality of opportunity and treatment. It had, however, left the revamped American military in no position to respond to a situation involving combat with an enemy who had all of the manpower it needed. The three-year-old Air Force with its integrated personnel was hardly in a position to mount an effective response. The integrating Army was somewhere between complete integration and racial segregation. In a sense, "it was caught with its pants down." The black soldier was therefore forced to enter another war in some similar aspects of his condition when he entered the last war: segregated units, poorly trained soldiers, low morale and inadequately prepared to give a good and effective account of himself. With the no quota mandate from the Fahy Committee, the determination of the number of blacks to be recruited was indeed a problem. The inability to muster full strength under such conditions caused much debate over what the policy should be with regard to the employment and deployment of black troops. In the face of this problem, the Fahy Committee insisted upon continuing the process of integration that had begun, emergency or no emergency. It boiled down to a point where it was more practical to maintain integrated military bases than try to keep them separated by race. It was also found to be easier to maintain front-line positions with the best troops by combining elements of black and white units into integrated units under a unified command. This situation did not lend itself to large numbers of troops. Some things did change when both black and white troops were sent to Japan in order to prepare for the situation in Korea. As the fighting escalated, white Col. Frank E. Petersen, Jr., a Marine Corps combat fighter pilot, completes a mission in Korea. Col. Petersen became a three star general. 75 combat units began to take many casualties. It was indeed unpopular for military commanders to replace white killed and wounded with other whites, as had always been the practice before the advent of equality of opportunity and treatment. The only alternative was to have black troops and black units fill in the gaps that had been created by white casualties. Thus, integration was being implemented in a manner that had not been imagined in the past. While racial integration of the military was taking place in Asia, that was not the case in Europe where there were large numbers of black and white troops. In effect, the black American was in three American armies at the same time. The one in Asia was basically integrated; the one in the United States was integrating; the one in Europe was still segregated. Under the pressure of the Korean War, integration of the Air Force went quite smoothly. Former (black) Air Force Lieutenant Charles E. Francis, in his book, THE TUSKEGEE AIRMEN, stated: "The integration program progressed beyond the hope of the most optimistic exponent of integration. To a large extent, those who were reassigned to white units were received at their new bases as American soldiers and given assignments according to their abilities. Black officers and enlisted men were given the same privileges as whites and treated, as individuals rather than as a race." (page 235) Twenty-one black pilots from the 99th and the 332nd and hundreds of black enlisted men served commendably with the Army Air Force in Korea. Lieutenant James Harvey, Jr, a former 99th fighter pilot was one of the first American pilots to see action as a jet pilot in Korea. (Then Major) Daniel "Chappie" James who had served as a Tuskegee flyer during World War II, distinguished himself as a fighter pilot during the Korean War. PFC William Thompson was awarded the Medal of Honor for valor in Colonel (later General) Daniel "Chappie" James, who flew many combat missions during the Korean conflict, completes a combat mission in Viet Nam. 76 the Korean War. He became the first black American to be so honored since the Spanish-American War in 1898. Sergeant Cornelius H. Charlton was the other black American who received the Medal of Honor in Korea. The black American in the military served well in Korea, proving beyond any element of doubt that he could fight as well as the white American in the military. While the Fahy Committee had recommended the immediate integration of the Army, many blacks will argue that the need for military manpower was the real key to the smooth, hasty and effective integration of the Army. The record of the integrated services in Korea spoke for itself, and it assured the nation and the world that the racially segregated American military was a thing of the past. Other branches of the American military also showed that the totally integrated American military was much more effective. Ensign Jesse L. Brown, the first black navy combat pilot, was killed when he was shot down by enemy ground fire in Korea. 77 Lieutenant General Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. signs an agreement for the United States with a member of the Korean Joint Chiefs of Staff. An integrated artillery unit in action in Korea. 78 THE POST-KOREAN YEARS (1954-1960) Following the Fahy Committee activity and the Korean War, the American military had been fairly well integrated. That held true for the Army, Navy and the Air Force. However, the National Guard remained basically segregated, especially in the South. The political realities viewed a compliant request to a Southern governor to desegregate the National Guard in his state as certain political suicide. This position held in spite of the fact that Federal monies were made available for guard units. There was the general feeling that integration had solved the lingering Negro problem in the military, and matters should be left to unravel themselves as time passed. The matter of both on-post and off-post segregation was still very much alive, even though President Eisenhower had decreed the end of discrimination at some military establishments such as the Charleston, South Carolina Navy Yard. Following the 1954 Supreme Court Decision on school integration, efforts had been taken to desegregate schools in which American children were being taught worldwide. A June, 1963 directive from Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara was responsible for the beginning of the complete ban on racial discrimination both on and off all American military bases. It was, however, the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that provided the basis for the desegregation of the National Guard. The beginning of the Black Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., shown here as he is arrested, had become the symbol of the black American's quest for equality in civilian and in military life. Power Revolt that year became a situation in which National Guard units were called upon to help restore order to the streets of American cities. Many of these guard units were all-white. These all-white guard units made enemies of many black youths in big city ghettoes. Ironically, what many would later call an unfair draft would put these urban youth in the military to serve alongside and with National Guard units. But the white guardsmen and the black youths had preconceived attitudes that 79 would make things difficult in the next war. The war clouds that usually gather to alert a nation that a new war is possible were giving subtle hints, but everyone seemed to have felt that if they were ignored, the threat of war would go away. Things were relatively quiet in the military, and it was not all due to the integration that was taking place. Many of the career military men, both black and white, who had entered the service during World War II and had preferred to remain, were nearing the period of completion for their twenty-year hitches. They were, therefore, quiet. All they wanted to do was to serve their time and come home. These men had seen the military as a means of economic survival, and they were ready to return to civilian life and use the GI Bill to pursue other life objectives. Many blacks felt comfortable with the military, expressing a belief that there was no way to go except up. President Truman's Executive Order 9981 had been reinforced by President Eisenhower; the United States Supreme Court had decreed an end to racially segregated education in the public schools; and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had been the most sweeping and far reaching edict in the interest of citizenship rights for blacks that the nation had ever witnessed. Black officers were in each branch of the military, and a full civil rights drive was underway in every nook and cranny of the nation. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. had emerged as a respected black leader and Southern National Guardsmen had been used to ensure the protection of black children in school integration efforts. The Navy had a black admiral and the Army had black generals. Many blacks would remain in the military service for the obvious reasons of economic security, social prestige and opportunities for advancement through the learning of a trade or profession. Brenede and Parson stated: "Historically, black Americans have always served their country well; they have fought in every American war. For the most part, their motivation in serving came from an ardent desire to prove themselves as worthy citizens. They believed that since military service ranked so high among American ideals, their participation would earn them respect, personal freedom from discrimination, and benefits accorded other groups of Americans." (Joel Osler Brende and Erwin Randolph Parson, VIETNAM VETERANS, THE ROAD TO RECOVERY, New York: New American Library, 1985, p. 168). Many blacks, therefore, thought that by becoming members of the military they could dodge the full impact of discrimination and segregation. This, of course, necessitated a commitment to war or any other military activity in the event of such. 81 Maj. Gen. Frederic E. Davison, Army Brig. Gen. "Chappie" James, Air Force Rear Admiral Samuel L. Gravely, Jr., Navy Brigadier General Cunningham C. Bryant, National Guard During and after the Korean War, many blacks were promoted to higher levels. Black and white soldiers in integrated military units were used to protect civil rights marchers along the route from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama. Members of these units were also used to restore and maintain order during the period of nation's crisis in racial conflict. 81 THE VIETNAM ERA (1960-1973) In August of 1964, North Vietnamese naval vessels attacked the USS MADDOX in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution brought the United States into another war. This was the second war in Asia since the ending of the war with Japan in 1945. Less than four months after the incident in the Tonkin Gulf, the United States had 23,000 soldiers fighting in Vietnam. A significant number of them was black soldiers. Four months later, the United States Air Force, the United States Marine Corps and the United States Navy were also in action in Vietnam. A significant number of these was also black. This war was one in which the integrated United States military was better prepared than ever as a fighting force that was made up of all American racial and ethnic groups. Blacks in particular were very visible in Vietnam. At one point in that war, blacks accounted for a whopping twenty-three percent of those killed, while blacks President Lyndon Johnson presents Medal of Honor, posthumously, to parents of PFC Milton L. Olive, III for his act of gallantry in Vietnam. 83 in the nation as a whole constituted only eleven percent of the nation's population. Those figures resulted in a changed concept by this nation's blacks. The old saying had been; "It's a rich man's war, but a poor man's fight." Disproportionate casualties among blacks led them to say, "It's a white man's war, but it's a black man's fight." This was just one element of the attitude that blacks had about the war in Vietnam, which they did not express to the same extent about any other war. Dr. Martin Luther King, an avowed critic of the Vietnam War, said of blacks fighting in that war, "We are taking young black men who have been crippled by our society and sending them 8,000 miles away to guarantee liberties in Southeast Asia which they have not found in Southwest Georgia or in East Harlem." (Harold Bryant, "THE BLACK VETERAN," STARS AND STRIPES-THE NATIONAL TRIBUNE, June, 1983, p. 5.). Although soldiers are in the business of killing, they must be motivated to do their jobs. Such motivation might be simple patriotism or it might be in evidence of some other belief or ideal. Dr. Charles Moskos spoke of the soldier's "patriotism or belief that he is fighting for a just cause, the effective soldier is ultimately an ideologically inspired soldier." (Brende and Parson, p. 169.) During the period of time between 1965 and 1967, black soldiers in Vietnam believed that they were fighting for a just cause, and their morale was high. However, the assassination of Dr. King in 1968 changed things. Black soldiers became angry and demoralized. Their morale reached a new low, matching their discontent with serving in that war. For their own reasons, many whites also expressed discontent about fighting in the Vietnam War. Hundreds who were not able to avoid the draft left the country for Canada and other places in order to stay out of the war. The 1984 Vietnam Veterans REPORT OF THE NATIONAL WORKING GROUP ON BLACK VIETNAM VETERANS, stated that: "Many of the most affluent members of society who did not fail their physicals were able to secure deferments or able to secure special assignments as officers in the Air Force, Navy and Coast Guard to avoid Vietnam combat. The fighting in Vietnam was thus on the shoulders of a disproportionate number of blacks and other minorities, as well as on the shoulders of indigent white Americans." PROJECT 100,000, the Johnson Administration's effort to draft 100,000 youths who might otherwise have gone to prison or be totally excluded from the opportunity to secure a better economic future, seems to have been motivated by noble and humane ideals, but its implementation proved not to be in the best interest of blacks, other minorities and indigent white Americans. It therefore failed. Those who chose to go to Vietnam went for reasons of patriotism, family pressure, anticipated excitement, revenge over the war death of a loved one, help to refine an identity in life, escape boredom, define their masculinity or they had no choice but to go. (Brende and Parsons, p. 171.) Many factors combined with the assassinations of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Senator Robert F. Kennedy to undercut the black American's motivation to fight in Vietnam. Paramount among these were the statistics that 84 showed blacks to be much more likely to be sent to Vietnam and most likely to be in high-risk combat units. The growth of black pride and nationalism was also a major cause for some reluctance to want to give their lives in the Vietnam War. Racial incidents in the military became common as the war continued. For example, forty black soldiers marched on the commanding general's headquarters at Chu Lai in 1971 and demanded an end to discrimination. There was a week- long racial war at Da Nang in 1971. A race riot broke out at Camp Baxter near the Demilitarized Zone. Some one-hundred and sixty racial incidents occurred at the Marine Base of Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, in 1969, and four days of racial rioting occurred at Travis Air Force Base in California in 1970. Racial disturbances between black and white military personnel also took place in Hawaii. The Navy also had its racial problem. The chief cause of racial problems in the Navy was the fact that almost all blacks were in low-level jobs, with little or no hope of progress or advancement. By the middle of 1970, the Navy had only 0.7 percent black officers in its ranks. The aircraft carriers KITTY HAWK, CONSTELLATION, AND FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT experienced severe racial conflict until Admiral Zumwalt took necessary steps to relieve the tension. His task was made difficult by the fact that as the Army began to pull some of its troops out of combat in Vietnam, the Navy and the Air Force were called upon to fill in the gaps. These were not simply black problems; both blacks and whites responded to them. In the midst of these racial problems, provocative whites are said to have burned KKK-type crosses and flew Confederate flags when and where they greatly outnumbered blacks. This conflict and dissatisfaction did not mean that black Americans refused to give their all during the Vietnam War effort. Black soldiers, sailors and marines fought as regular combat personnel on the ground, on the sea and in the air throughout the duration Helicopter crew tends wounded sailor whom they rescued in Vietnam waters. 85 of the conflict, and they fought bravely. Many black officers went on to distinguish themselves in that war in their commitment to duty, acts of valor and leadership qualities. Some of these were officers who had also distinguished themselves in Korea. Several of them rose in the ranks to become generals and admiral grade officers. By the end of the Vietnam War, there were twelve black generals in the Army, three in the Air Force and, one black admiral in the Navy. Of the 277 Medals of Honor awarded in the Vietnam War, a total of 20 went to blacks in the Army and the Marine Corps. A number of blacks earned other military honors and medals. During the Vietnam War, the American black received what he had sought since the time of this nation's first war: equality of opportunity on the battlefield. There is no question that blacks and whites will fight and die together as Americans in any future military conflicts involving this nation. Members of both races will join other Americans and serve in leadership positions as well as in other capacities. The figures that follow, compiled two years before the Vietnam War ended, show the early status of the black American in that war. Participation: Service: All Totals: 373,087 Blacks: 41,770 Killed: Service: All Totals: 44,888 Blacks: 5,570 Total Military Service: Service: All Totals: 2,793,024 Blacks: 275,827 Air Force pilots plan a strike against the enemy in Vietnam. 86 POST VIETNAM ERA (1973 - PRESENT) Many changes had taken place in the American military by the time that the Vietnam War came to an end in 1973. The changes were substantive and visible. They were reflected in the manner that black and white service persons viewed each other, and they were reflected in the nature of the individuals who were members of the military. Those differences were also reflected in the absence of segregation and blatant discrimination that had always been a factor of this nation's armed services. One paramount factor in the nature of the changes was due to the fact that the Nixon administration decided to replace the Selective Service System with an all-volunteer military. This 1973 decision resulted in a new feeling by those who would become members of the American military. Instead of seeing themselves as helpless victims of the "system," they thought in terms of making the military a career of free choice. Gone was the obligation to serve in the military because they had to defend their country. The racial friction that had plagued the military during the Vietnam war, and had been so prevalent throughout the history of the military began to become a thing of the past. It had become obvious that black and white soldiers who could fight and die side by side under the same conditions and circumstances realized that they could also live side by side, at least in the military. In his book, THE MILITARY: MORE THAN JUST A JOB?, Frank Wood said, "Those who worked against the (military) system were mustered out and replaced by those who chose the military as a career move,..." He continued, "...the morale among the soldiers improved and race relations became less an issue and less of a point of contention." The all-volunteer force resulted in more enlistments. The idea that there would be more enlistments and perhaps "too many of them" would be black was one of the strongest bones of contention against the possibility of an all-volunteer force when it was initially discussed as a possibility. The (Thomas S.) Gates Committee studied the potential problem in great detail and reported to the President that a volunteer army would not be "overrun" with blacks. He reassured the President that the percentage of blacks in the voluntary army would remain somewhat close to the percentage that prevailed at that time. Mr. Gates' prediction was not accurate for the immediate period following the new era. The black percentage in the Army went from twelve percent in 1968 to 32 percent in 1979. This drastic increase caused quite a bit of uneasiness and concern in some quarters. Those in authority made their concern known, but the volunteer concept prevailed. Since the volunteer army had been preceded by a significant pay raise and equal pay for equal work, the motivation for black youth to join the military continued without any noticeable sign of a slowdown. Many efforts to restrict mas- 87 sive black volunteerism by selective recruitment resulted in some actions that were elements of discrimination. However, since the Vietnam War had left a feeling of animosity among many whites about the military, significant enlistments of blacks helped to maintain the services at their prescribed strength. The status of the military also declined among middle class whites. When this was coupled with the reality of greater opportunities for whites in civilian life, it was feared that the all-volunteer army would become a black army. As the enlistment of blacks continued at an alarming pace, they began to realize that blacks were still in the lower pay scale and rating positions. Equal pay for equal work at the higher levels meant that basically, whites were getting equal pay with other whites. In a sense, this had always been the case. While black high school graduates were more likely than white high school graduates to enter the military services, whites were more likely to receive advancements in rank and pay than blacks. The military was still a better place for many black youth. Not only did it give them the basic necessities of life with decent pay, it also afforded them an opportunity to travel to and live in different parts of the world. Even while in the United States, those blacks who married and had families, usually lived off the base. They and their families generally lived in integrated neighborhoods; their children usually attended integrated schools. The low percentage of black officers continued to be a major concern among blacks. In 1964, black officers constituted only 3.3 percent of the army's officers. Fifteen years later, that figure had risen to only 6.8 percent. Considering the large number of black enlisted personnel in the army, that low percentage figure showed that there were still some drawbacks in the concept of equal opportunity and treatment for blacks. Still the percentage of blacks in the Army continued to increase. One year after peace in Vietnam, blacks constituted 27 percent of the Army. Army Secretary Howard Calloway expressed his concern that the percentage of blacks in the army was nowhere near the proportionate percentage of blacks in the nation as a whole. Some black leaders became aware of Mr. Calloway's concern and pointed out that the same was true of black officers in the army, only the proportionate percentage was on the lower end. Nevertheless, Mr. Calloway stated that his feeling was that the Army should be more reflective "in the racial, geographic, and socio-economic sense." (Martin Binkin and Mark J. Eitelberg, BLACKS AND THE MILITARY, 1982, Page 3) The charge against the Navy was that it initiated a quota system in order to restrict and control the number and percentage of blacks enlisting in that branch of service. Another feature of the Navy recruitment program was said to be the practice of recruiting low-level blacks who would wind up doing the menial work. This placed blacks in competition with other blacks for advancements. The Marine Corps also found itself accused of some discriminatory practices in its recruitment activities. It was charged that marine recruitment practices showed evidence of racial bias. 88 this was not true of the Air Force which had taken strong and immediate action to root out even the most subtle and covert practices of racial discrimination practiced in the military as the Vietnam Era came to a close. One source stated that the Air Force has always prided itself on being the service that was the first to effectively integrate. It reported further that "...and since that time in the immediate years following World War II, the Air Force seemed to be one step (or more) ahead of the other services in implementing various plans of integration such as the Gesell Committee reports of the mid-sixties." Much of the advancement in race relations following Vietnam can go to the Air Force as a result of action it took following the racial disurbances at Travis Air Force Base in California. A Colonel Lucius Theus initiated some intergroup training activities that were based upon racial understanding seminars and the establishment of human relations councils. Those activities have been imitated, modified and expanded upon as models for the other branches of service. Nalty and McGregor state that: "About one-half of the officers (in the military) have taken part in race relations seminars and human relations councils. About one-third of all white enlisted men and about 40 percent of all black enlisted men have attended seminars and councils. Officers and NCO's feel relations between soldiers have improved; understanding and efforts to promote understanding on the part of leaders have increased; and discrimination in job assignments, promotions and punishment have decreased."(Bernard Nalty and Morris McGregor, BLACKS IN THE MILITARY, p. 352) At the outset, the Theus efforts concentrated upon racial relations, but four years later, the program was restructured and put under the control of the Defense Department. The current emphasis is upon the education and training of various specialists in areas related to reduced potential for racial conflict. All indications seem to point to the conclusion that efforts to reduce racial animosity in the American military seem to be effective. It might be argued that equality of opportunity and treatment in the American military still has a way to go before the fullness of President Truman's Executive Order 9981 will be realized. The results that have been achieved thus far show very clearly that this nation's military has gone a long way in that direction. Charges of even minor discrimination get immediate attention, and integration has long been the rule rather than the exception. The percentage of blacks in the military disproportionately high with respect to the percentage of blacks in the nation as a whole. The highest percentage is in the Army, with 28 percent. This is followed by the Marines with 19 percent. The Air Force and the Navy have 15 and 14.4 percents respectively. This averages out to be slightly higher than 19 percent. Figures for 1989 show that the Army is also higher in black officers with 10.6 percent. The Air Force was second with 5.4 percent black officers. The Marines with 5 percent and the Navy with 3.6 percent provide a reflection of black officers in the military as of 1989. That averages out to be 6.15 percent, less than the black percentage of the nation's population. In the area of equality of opportunity, the black American's rise in rank 89 in the military has been nothing short of sensational. It is common practice to see blacks in all types of military positions, with all types of assignments and rank. At the present time, blacks in the Air Force are more than pilots. Some have risen to the rank of wing commanders, air base commanders and high ranking officers in other aspects of the defense posture. Blacks have gone far beyond the messman branch only in the Navy since the outset of World War II. They have reached all ranks, from seamen to admirals. Some are pilots of the most sophisticated aircraft in the Navy, while others have been aircraft carrier commanders, submarine commanders and commanders of smaller ships. The Marines have had blacks serve in any number of positions in a like manner. At the present time, one black has reached the rank of lieutenant general. The rosters at the service academies include the names of many blacks who have graduated, are still in attendance and are expected to graduate at a future date. Black American military persons have made their affiliations within the various branches of the service their career choices. At this nation's military encounter in Panama, black Americans were present and in action, doing what was expected of them, and doing their jobs the same as all other persons. 90 CHAPTER II THE BLACK AMERICAN MAKES HISTORIC STRIDES IN DEFENSE OF OUR NATION The Tuskegee Flyers THE BLACK AMERICAN BECOMES A FIGHTING AIRMAN The record shows that blacks had been attempting to gain entrance into the Army Air Corps since World War I. Senators Harry Swartz of Wyoming and Styles Bridges of New Hampshire were in the forefront of those in Congress who championed the cause of the extended use of blacks in the Air Corps. Public Law 18, approved April 3, 1939, provided for the large-scale expansion of the Air Corps, with one section of the law authorizing the establishment of training programs in black colleges for the utilization of blacks in the various aspects of support services in the Air Corps. One such black college was designated as a training center for black pilots and support personnel. Race and color were not the only barriers that blacks faced in pursuit of training in the Air Corps. The fact that there were no blacks to train them meant that there must be an element of racial integration if the program were to get started. On January 16, 1941, the War Department announced the formation of the 99th Pursuit Squadron, a black flying unit, to be trained at Tuskegee, Alabama, the home of the Tuskegee Institute. In the same month of January, the Secretary of the Army announced that, since there were no black officers in the Air Corps, eleven white officers would be assigned the duty of training 429 enlisted men and 47 officers as the first black military personnel in the flying school. Thus the "Lonely Eagles," as the black pilots were to call themselves, became a reality. The 99th Pursuit Squadron which was later named the 99th Fighter Squadron, fought throughout the Mediterranean and European Theaters and became a respected group of fighter pilots. Perhaps the unit's greatest claims to fame were: (1) as a bomber escort group that protected American bombers on their missions deep into Europe, the 99th never lost a bomber to enemy fighters; and (2) the unit was responsible for the formation of several other black Air Corps units, including fighter, bomber and composite squadrons and groups. In June of 1943, Lieutenant Charles Hall of Indiana shot down his first enemy plane and became the first member of the 99th to shoot down a German plane. He was personally congratulated by General Eisenhower who was in the area at the time. From the inception of the 99th through the period that signaled the ending of World War II (1946), the following numbers of black combat flyers completed their training: 91 673 as single-engine pilots; 253 as twin-engine pilots; 58 as liaison field artillery officers; 132 as navigators. The bulk of black flyers were in the 332nd Fighter Group, which consisted of the 99th Fighter Squadron; the 100th Fighter Squadron; the 301st Fighter Squadron; the 302nd Fighter Squadron; the 616th Bombardment Squadron; the 617th Bombardment Squadron; the 618th Bombardment Squadron and the 619th Bombardment Squadron. There was also the 477th Composite Group, which consisted of the 99th Fighter Squadron; the 616th Bombardment Squadron; the 618th Bombardment Squadron and the 619th Bombardment Squadron. The bombardment squadrons were equipped with B-26 aircraft and later with B-25s. Campaigns of the 99th Fighter Squadron included Sicily, Naples-Foggia; Anzio; Rome-Arno; Normandy; Northern France; Southern France; North Apennines; Rhineland; Central Europe; Po Valley; Air Combat-EAME Theatre. Decorations of the 99th Fighter Squadron were Distinguished Unit Citations for Sicily, June-July, 1943; Cassino, May 12-14, 1944; Germany, March 24, 1945. Captain Charles B. Hall, first black pilot to shoot down a German plane Cadet color guard at Tuskagee 92 COMBAT RECORD OF BLACK AIRMEN June 9, 1945 Destroyed Damaged Total Aircraft (aerial) 111 25 136 Aircraft (ground) 150 123 273 Barges and Boats 16 24 40 Boxcars, Other Rolling Stock 58 561 619 Building & Factories 0 23 23 Gun Emplacements 3 0 3 Destroyers 1 0 1 Horse Drawn Vehicles 15 100 115 Motor Transports 6 81 87 Power Transformers 3 2 5 Locomotives 57 69 126 Radar Installations 1 8 9 Tanks on Flat Cars 0 7 7 Oil & Amunition Dumps 2 0 2 Total Missions 12th Air Force 1267 Total Missions 15th Air Force 311 Total Sorties 12th Air Force 6381 Total Sorties 15th Air Force 9152 Grand Total Missions 1578 Grand Total Sorties 15533 Total number Pilots sent overseas 450 Total number of Pilots graduated at Tuskegee 993 Awards: Legion of Merit 1 Silver Star 1 Soldier Medal 2 Purple Heart 8 Distinguished Flying Cross 95 Bronze Star 14 Air Medal and Clusters 744 (Total number of Distinguished Flying Crosses awarded to black pilots estimated at 150, according to Charles E. Francis, THE TUSKEGEE AIRMAN, 1988) 93 Ground crew for 332nd fighter Group plane attaches an external fuel tank for long range flight to protect American bombers over Germany. P-51 fighter plane of the 332nd Group takes off for bomber escort mission. (Note external fuel tanks beneath wings.) 94 THE 761ST TANK BATTALION Lieutenant General Leslie J. McNair, Chief of the Army Ground Forces during the early 1940's, had been a proponent of blacks in the Armored Forces of the United States Army Ground Forces long before the beginning of World War II. His insistence that such move would pay dividends finally won out over the opposition on most of his peers. Unfortunately, General McNair was killed in July of 1944. Although he did get the chance to see the unit that he had been so instrumental in creating, he did not live to see the fruits of his venture as black armor made its mark in Italy in late 1944 and in Europe from late 1944 throughout the end of World War II in Europe. It was in March of 1941, some nine months before the Pearl Harbor attack, that 98 black enlisted men created a mild shock when they appeared at the Armored Forces School at Fort Knox, Kentucky. This was the first time that blacks had been in the armored section of the United States Army in the history of this nation. These black pioneers saw their numbers continually increase to the point that in June of that year, the 758th Tank Battalion (light) came into existence. They left Fort Knox and went to Camp Claiborne, Louisiana for further training and organization. It was at this facility that on April 1, 1942, the 761st Tank Battalion (light) was activitated. While this was a positive gesture, it was also the time that the War Department stopped giving any consideration to the formation of a black armored division. Instead, the Army decided to activate five armored groups, four of whom were white. The black unit, commanded by Colonel LeRoy Nichols, was known as the "5th Group." Instead of the standard complement of 36 officers and 593 enlisted men, the original 761st was composed of 27 officers and 313 enlisted men. Eight months after America's entry into World War II, the 761st was increased to 34 officers and 545 enlisted men It was commanded by (then) Major Edward F. Cruise of Poughkeepsie, New York. However, it had been only three days after the Pearl Harbor attack that Second Lieutenants Charles H. Barbor, Samuel Brown and Ivan H. Harrison had become the first black officers assigned to the unit. The unit made satisfactory progress in becoming what its few supporters had hoped that it would become. On October 27, 1943, the War Department designated the unit the 761st Tank Battalion. It was no longer the light tank battalion that it had always been. It was at that point that more black officers became members of the unit. It also received black company commanders. Lieutenant Jackie Robinson, later of baseball fame, was assigned to the unit at Fort Riley, Kansas in March of 1944. On June 9, 1944, three days after the D-Day invasion of Europe, the 761st was alerted for overseas duty. It had barely avoided the plans to change the unit into an amphibian tank unit. 95 General George S. Patton addresses the men of the 761st on November 2, 1944. The 761st was sent to Europe. It left England and arrived at Normandy on October 10, 1944. The 761st was assigned to the 26th Infantry Division of the XII Corps, in General Patton's 3rd Army. General Patton had made such request. On October 31, General Paul, the commander of the 26th Division told the assembled group of men: "I am damned glad to have you with us. We have been expecting you for a long time, and I am sure that you are going to give a good account of yourselves. I've got a big hill up there and I want you to take it, and I believe you are going to do a great job at it." (Trezzvant W. Anderson - Battalion Historian COME OUT FIGHTING: THE EPIC TALE OF THE 761ST TANK BATTALION 1942-1945, Printed by Salzburger, Druckerel and Verlang, p. 21.) Two days later, the assembled group received a special visit from none other than General George S. Patton himself. He told them in the George S. Patton directness: "Men, you're the first Negro tankers to ever fight in the American Army. I would never have asked for you if you weren't good. I have nothing but the best in my Army. I don't care what color you are, so long as you go up there and kill the Kraut sonofabitches. Everyone has their eyes on you, and is expecting great things from you. Most of all, your race is looking forward to you. Don't let them down, and, damn you, don't let me down." (Ibid.) At 0600 hours on the morning of November 8, 1944, the 761st went into battle at Athaniville, France. This was the beginning of their ordeal of 183 continuous days of combat in which they and their Sherman Tanks took on the armor and infantry of crack German units and their vaunted 88's. Before their ordeal was to come to an end, they would face the enemy in six European countries. During this period of time, they spearheaded many of Patton's drives, defeated a strong, skillful enemy, liberated Jews from concentration camps, burst through enemy lines on the refortified Maginot line, and captured more than 30 towns. Among other things, not counting their exploits in Task Force Rhine, they destroyed 58 pill-boxes; 381 machinegun nests; 64 (88mm) anti-tank guns; 23 96 (75mm) anti-tank guns; 34 tanks; 24 bazooka teams; 465 wheeled vehicles; and 3 army dumps. They killed 6,266 enemy soldiers and captured an additional 15,818 of the enemy. As it was spearheading another of Patton's drive, the 761st received its most memorable order: "You will advance to the Enns River (in Austria), and you will wait there for the Russians." General Patton addressed the men with unbridled pride as he spoke to one assembled company at the war's end. The men of the 761st received 11 Silver Stars, 69 Bronze Stars, three certificates of merit and 296 purple hearts. Company commanders of five of the six companies of the 761st. Left to right: Captain James T. Baker, 1st Lt. William H. Griffin; 1st Lt. James R. Burgess; Capt. Richard W. English; Capt. Samuel Brown. (Capt. Charles A. Gates not shown.) 97 Presidential Unit Citation awarded to 761st Tank Battalion 98 THE RED BALL EXPRESS AND THE BLACK AMERICAN TRUCKER OF WORLD WAR II Of the more than one million black Americans in uniform during World War II, most of them were in the Service of Supply (SOS). This did not mean that black Americans were either unable or unwilling to fight; it meant that as they were subjected to the policies of racial segregation and discrimination in the wartime military the same as they were in peacetime civilian life, they did not readily or easily find themselves in combat roles. They were relegated primarily to SOS in the Army, to the messman branch in the Navy and not initially accepted in the Marine Corps. Even when they were eventually permitted to serve in the Marines, most of them served in ammunition and depot companies and battalions in the composite battalions and in support detachments. Even in these service, supply, messman and support units, they were called upon to fight in emergencies and their performance was generally rated satisfactory. For example, the (black) 57th Ordinance Ammunition Company found itself engaging sixty-five enemy soldiers at Peronne with no other American units in the area. Its members killed fifty of the enemy and captured the other fifteen. For their action, two of them received the Croix de Guerre, one received the Silver Star and one received the Bronze Star. While blacks at home in civilian life were very limited in the type of employment they could acquire, black service men overseas were operating bulldozers and cranes, setting up communication systems and driving heavy trucks and trailers. It was in the driving of these heavy trucks and trailers that many blacks distinguished themselves as a group. That group was known as the "Red Ball Express." Of all the black units that served in Service of Supply in the Army, perhaps none received the acclaim of the truckers of the fabled Red Ball Express. The drivers in this system, like other black Quartermaster truck companies, were permanently attached to infantry and armored divisions fighting across Europe. The legend of the black truckers of the Red Ball Express is well known in their hauling of food, ammunition and other conventional materials and supplies, but very little is even mentioned about dump truck, gasoline truck and ambulance companies. These men were not just truck drivers. There were times when black drivers had to stop their vehicles, get their rifles and other weapons and join combat troops in repulsing enemy attacks. This is also part of the legend of the Red Ball Express. The Red Ball Express had an auspicious beginning and it was rather short-lived. The Allied breakthrough in August of 1944 resulted in a need for significant 99 tonnage of materials for American and other Allied forces in Europe. This was an acute imperative for the First and Third Armies, especially General Patton's Third Army. Since the retreating Germans had destroyed the French railroads, the troops of these advancing armies had to be supplied by truck. In order to meet this demand, the Red Ball Plan was devised by the Transportation Corps on August 21, 1944. The Red Ball Express became operational on August 25th, and its convoys operated trucks in endless numbers until November 13th of that year. The Red Ball Plan provided for two one-way reserved highway routes marked "Red Ball Trucks Only." The original route was from St. Lo to Paris and back. On an average day, 899 vehicles on the Red Ball Express traveled 1,504,616 ton-miles on the trip that took an average time of 54 hours. Approximately 73 percent of the truck companies in the Motor Transport Service were black. Although the Red Ball express was the most famous of all trucking routes of the European Motor Transport, it was not the only truck route. When the Red Ball Express was faded out on November 13, 1944, it was replaced by the White Ball Route. The White Ball Route carried supplies and materials from LaHarve and Rouen to forward areas. Four of the nine truck companies of the White Ball Route were black. Two other routes were the Anthwerp-Brussels-Charleroi (ABC) Route which went into operation on November 30th and the Green Diamond Route. Of the truck companies which made up this route from Normandy and the Brest peninsula, two of those nineteen truck companies were black. Two days after the June 6, 1944 Normandy landings, the Petroleum-Oil Lubricant (POL) Route of the Motor Transport Service began to operate two truck battalions of which one was black. This route preceded the Red Ball Express. Red Ball Express trucks moving through a regulation point 100 The 3917th Gasoline Supply Company which supplied General Patton's Third Army with up to 165,000 gallons of gasoline a day was an example of another black trucking company other than those of the Red Ball Express that rendered outstanding service. After 1943, the Transportation Corps assigned blacks as most of the personnel in the twelve amphibian truck companies. It was jokingly stated that black amphibian companies, whose drivers drove the easily sunk DUKW, were evidence of the effort to "get rid of blacks." When speaking of black truckers in World War II, it must be remembered that these quartermaster trucks sped over the Red Ball Express Route in Europe, the Motor Transport System in Iran and the Stillwell Road in Burma. When the Japanese invasion of Australia seemed imminent, Colonel Landes, who was decorated by General MacArthur for his initiative, organized 3500 Quartermaster truck drivers into the Motor Transport Command in Australia. Two thousand four hundred of these were black truck drivers. In addition to transporting all manner of supplies in Australia, these truck drivers had the primary responsibility of transporting soldiers south should the Japanese invasion occur. All of these truckers have earned for themselves a place in the history of the World War II effort. None, however, was as popular as those who proclaimed themselves drivers of the Red Ball Express. Major General Everett S. Hughes congratulates Cpl. Robert F. Bradley, after presenting the black trucker with the Bronze Star. 101 "The Triple Nickels" THE 555TH PARACHUTE INFANTRY COMPANY When the Army was forming its elite 82nd Airborne Division during World War", the rule was "whites only." Blacks allegedly "couldn't handle" the tough training and didn't have enough "guts" to jump out of airplanes. Blacks were supposed to guard the all-white paratrooper school and packing shed and patrol the area as they watched the white soldiers train. But there was one man who knew that black soldiers could do just as well as whites and decided to prove it. The year was 1944. "Since we were in the vicinity, I decided we would emulate the white paratroopers," said Walter Morris, who was first sergeant of the black service company. "We observed them when they did their calisthenics and double-timed everywhere they went. So we copied some of the things they were doing. But we didn't have any paratrooper boots. "We caught the attention of the general (Lt. Gen. Ridgely Gaither, who commanded the parachute school) when he was making an inspection," said Morris, who is retired from the construction business in New York and now lives with his wife in Palm Coast, Florida. "He was impressed when he saw us doing our calisthenics. We were showing off to show him that we could do as well as the white paratroopers." Morris and his soldiers got a lot of prideful satisfaction out of proving blacks could endure the same training as whites. But little did they know that by emulating the white paratroopers they would become a part of airborne history. Not long after the calisthenics demonstration, General Gaither summoned Morris to his office. "He let me know that President (Franklin D.) Roosevelt had ordered Gen. (George C.) Marshall to form an all-black paratrooper unit. The decision was made in response to complaints by A. Philip Randolph, organizer of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and president of the National Negro Congress and the black press," said Morris. "Blacks were asking, why can't we have black paratroopers, too?" Morris' efforts toward black soldiers proving their mettle paid off. "General Gaither selected me as the first sergeant and the first black paratrooper in the first all-black paratrooper company in American history," said Morris. That was the 555th Parachute Infantry Company. "I then waited until a cadre was brought in from the 92nd Infantry Division at Fort Huachuca, Arizona," said Morris. "There were originally 20 of us, but only 16 graduated from the jump training; two didn't make it for medical reasons, one had a death in the family, 103 and the fourth one just couldn't jump. Since we needed cooks and he was one, we decided to let him stay. But he wasn't on jump status." Morris continued, "Of course, all of the instructors were white. Being a paratrooper was a big thing at the time and there weren't a heck of a lot of whites jumping out of airplanes. We got along pretty well with the white troopers. The only problem we had was that the entire post at Fort Benning, Georgia, both of officers and enlisted, were making bets that we wouldn't jump -- we'd be too afraid. The thing that inspired us was that this was the only black combat outfit then, and it was an opportunity for black troops to enter something they could be proud of." The black paratrooper students were segregated from the whites, both on and off post. But that didn't deter them. "It was not a big thing to us, because we had been conditioned," said Morris. "It was something we had learned to live with and accepted." It was a grueling, exhausting four weeks of training for the black paratrooper pioneers -- push-ups, sit-ups, running, push-ups, sit-ups, running -- from morning 'til night the first week. The second week had more calisthenics and an introduction to the 35-foot tower jump. The third week had the 250-foot tower. The fourth week was packing and repacking parachutes and jumping every day, ending with a night jump on Friday. Saturday was graduation day when they received their silver airborne wings. After the class graduated, the white cadre troopers returned to Fort Huachuca and the graduating class became the cadre. "When we graduated, the word went out that the Army was accepting volunteers for an all-black parachute battalion, and we got applications from everywhere -- overseas and all over the states," said Morris. Seven black officers were brought in. Each platoon had two officers. General Gaither had a big surprise for Morris after the first class completed the course. The 555th Parachute Company was going to become the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, and the outfit needed an adjutant. "General Gaither said, 'I want you to go to OCS (officer candidate school) because we're going to have a battalion', so I went to OCS at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, in April 1944 and graduated that June," Morris recalls. "I was then reassigned to the 555th, which had been relocated to Camp Mackall, N.C., adjacent to Fort Bragg." "This was a unique situation," said Morris. "We had a battalion with a captain as commander." Morris had a problem when he returned as a second lieutenant; there were no quarters for black officers. "They let me stay in the same house I had as first sergeant. They gave us (the other black officers) an empty barracks and fixed it up a little bit. I stayed there (in the house) for about three months. When I went back to pay my rent, they discovered that there were no provisions to collect rent from a black officer. So they said to forget about (paying) it," Morris laughed. 104 "When General Gavin (Major Gen. James M. Gavin, commander of the 82nd Airborne Division) saw the conditions in which we were training and living back in the woods, he integrated the black and white paratroopers," Morris said. "This was long before President (Harry S.) Truman signed the order to integrate the military services. "Once we graduated, we started combat training preparing troops to go overseas," said Morris. But the black paratroopers never set sail for the war in Europe. Instead, they were sent to fight forest fires started by Japanese incendiary balloons on the West Coast from California to Arizona. "The Triple Nickels" earned a new nickname, "Smoke Jumpers," for their ability to leap into smoke-filled clearings. They racked up 36 fire fighting missions, making more than 1,000 individual jumps into burning forests. For this they earned another nickname... "Black Panthers." The 555th Parachute Battalion was redesignated the 3rd Battalion, 505th Airborne Infantry Regiment, and became a part of the 82nd Airborne Division. Former members of the first black paratroopers joined the all-black 2nd Airborne Ranger Company at the all-black 2nd Airborne Ranger Company at Fort Bragg and saw action in Korea with the 7th Infantry Division. That company was later attached to the 187th Regimental Combat Team and made two jumps in Korea. The unit received a bronze arrowhead for its parachute assault at Munsan-ni. They also received several other awards. Black paratroopers prepare for a jump 105 Generals Omar Bradley and James M. Gavin speak with personnel of the 555th. Members of the 555th in a parachute jump. 106 BLACK AMERICANS IN SPACE In every aspect of the American military, or military-related endeavors, the black American has been involved. The National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) is no exception. The black American presence is found throughout the space program. Blacks occupy a significant number of the professional positions in areas such as aerospace engineering, medicine, astrophysics, and related space services of a scientific and technical nature. Thus, black Americans constitute a significant number of the 1,000 technical, scientific and engineering personnel that NASA says are in evidence for every astronaut. The presence of black Americans in the space program is not a recent event. For example, Dr. Vance H. Marchbanks, Jr., a black Air Force flight surgeon, served on the mission flight control team when Astronaut John Glen made his historic space flight on FRIENDSHIP 7 in February of 1962. Isaac Gillim, another black American, served as Director of the Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base in California. He also served as Director of Shuttle Operations. The participation of blacks in the space program involves more than support specialists. One year after John Glen's space flight, the United States Air Force Astronaut Selection Board nominated Captain Edward J. Dwight, Jr. for the manned space flight training program. When Captain Dwight was passed over without what to him was a valid reason, he leveled the charge of racial discrimination. His dismissal from the program was controversial. Four years later, in 1967, Air Force Major Robert H. Lawrence, Jr. was selected to become an astronaut in the Manned Orbiting Laboratory Program. This black pilot-scientist with a Ph.D. in nuclear chemistry was killed in an aircraft crash. Mission Specialist Guion Bluford, Jr., who holds a doctorate in aerospace engineering from the Air Force Institute of Technology, had been an Air Force fighter pilot with 144 combat missions in Vietnam before he entered astronaut training. He served as a member of the crew on an earlier CHALLENGER space flight before its disasterous explosion in space. Colonel Bluford was the commander of a recent space mission. Dr. Ronald E. McNair, a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in physics, was killed in the ill-fated CHALLENGER flight that ended in disaster. He was a staff physicist with the Hughes Research Laboratories where he specialized in laser phenomenona. The current corps of black astronauts are shown on the following page. 107 CHARLES F. BOLDEN, JR. is a 1968 graduate of the US Naval Academy and holds a paster of science degree in systems management. Prior to becoming an astronaut, Bolden served as a test pilot at the Naval Air Test Center. FREDERICK D. GREGORY is a graduate of US Air Force Academy and holds a master of science degree in information systems. He was an Air Force and NASA test pilot prior to his becoming an astronaut. GUION S. BLUFORD, JR. holds a doctorate in aerospace engineering from the Air Force Institute of Technology. Before being selected for austronaut training, he was an Air Force fighter pilot in Vietnam with 144 combat missions. MAE C. JEMISON hold a bachelor of science degree in chemical engineering and a doctorate in medicine. She was selected as an astronaut candidate in June of 1987. Dr. Jemison was the first black female astronaut. 108 DR. VANCE H. MARCHBANKS, JR., a black Air Force flight surgeon and former member of the 332d Fighter Group, examines medical charts in conjunction with the FRIENDSHIP 7 flight in 1962. Dr. marchbanks monitored astronaut John Glenn's vital signs as Glenn orbited the earth. ROBERT H. LAWRENCE, an Air Force Major was a pilot-scientist with a doctorate in nuclear chemistry. He was selected to become an astronaut in the DoD's Manned Orbiting Laboratory program, but was killed in a tragic aircraft accident in 1967. ISSAC GILLAM IV. Special Assistant for Space Transportation Systems at NASA, served as Director of the Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base in California, where he was also Director of Shuttle Operations. RONALD E. MCNAIR was a staff physicist with Hughes Research Laboratories before he joined the astronaut training program. He held a doctorate in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. McNair was killed aboard the ill-fated CHALLENGER flight in January 1986. 109 CHAPTER III THE BLACK AMERICAN IN EXPANDED SERVICES ON THE SEAS AND IN THE AIR THE BLACK AMERICAN IN THE UNITED STATES NAVY Given the racial attitude of the Navy after World War I, and at the beginning of World War II, it might be difficult to see how Doris Miller or any black sailor could distinguish himself in that branch of the American military. The restricted range of activities that was available to blacks hardly left any room for them to acquire hero status. This lack of the opportunity to acquire such status was interpreted by many whites as a lack of courage or a lack of integrity to perform tasks that result in any type of acts of valor. The dearth of information made available to the American public concerning blacks in the Navy has mistakingly left the impression with many that blacks really have not been involved in naval combat activities in any Significant manner. It was therefore considered an oddity or a fluke to even suggest that a black American had distinguished himself as a national Navy hero. In several cases, such assumptions have been misleading. The record shows that blacks have been in the United States Navy since the early days of the Republic. However, on a comparative scale, until World War II, blacks in the Navy have generally been small in number. Circumstances occasioned by the manner of service rendered by black sailors have made it almost impossible to determine how many blacks actually served in the Navy since its beginning. One reason for the circumstances that have been responsible for the lack of information on blacks is that service records were not kept by race until a short time before World War I. Another reason is that many blacks served aboard naval vessels as helpers and hired hands who provided a source of labor as persons who were usually knowledgeable about local waterways., but they were not listed on musters. There were also those blacks serving in the Navy who were substituting for their masters, and there was no need to list them by name. Their masters usually promised them their freedom at the expiration of their terms of service. It is, however, a recorded fact that blacks served in the Continental Navy and in the navies of the several states. At least three blacks are known to have served in the Continental Marines and ten or more served as marines aboard ships belonging to the navies of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. The record also shows that John Martin, a Delaware slave known as Keto, has been acknowledged as the first black to serve in the Continental Marines. He served aboard the REPRISAL until it was sunk in 1777 with only the cook surviving. A black from Philadelphia by the name of Isaac Walker served in the Continental Marines from October 1, 1776 through the Battle of Trenton on January 1 and 2, 1777. The Continental Marines went out of service on April 11, 1783. However, the United States Marines came into existence fifteen years later, on July 11, 1798, but with specific instructions that "No Negro, Mulatto or Indian could be enlisted." This edict, 111 however, did not keep blacks out of the Navy. They continued to enlist and they continued to serve. The impressment of black sailors aboard British ships was one of the primary causes of the problems that occasioned the War of 1812 with Great Britain. Several blacks were involved in that war, and many in the Navy since it was primarily a naval war. It has been estimated by some accounts that 16 percent of the personnel of Naval crews at that time were blacks. (Then) Captain Oliver Hazard Perry wrote that he had nearly 50 blacks aboard his ship, and that they were as good as any other sailors that he had ever seen. Blacks played primary roles in all phases of naval action on the Great Lakes. Blacks were also destined to play major roles in this nation's next military conflict of consequence, the Civil War. In addition to the 200,000 blacks who would serve in the Union Army, some 30,00 would also see service in the Union Navy. In September of 1861, some four months after the Civil War had begun, the Navy Department authorized the enlistment of blacks "when their service can be made useful under the same forms and regulations applying to other enlistments." Of special significance among blacks who served in the Navy during the Civil War was slave-pilot Robert Smalls who ran the Confederate gunboat PLANTER out of Charleston, South Carolina Harbor in May of 1862 and brought it safely to a Union port. Smalls was later appointed pilot of the USS KOEKUK, and he was subsequently promoted to the rank of captain. He served as captain aboard the PLANTER for the duration of the war. Camp Robert Smalls, the World War II "Negro Recruit Training Camp" at the Great Lakes, Illinois Naval Training Center, was named in honor of Robert Smalls. There were several instances of blacks who served in other capacities in the Union Navy during the Civil War. For example, 15 black enlisted men were aboard the USS KEARSAGE when it sank the Confederate ALABAMA off the coast of Cherbourg, France in June of 1864. There were also at least 21 blacks aboard the USS ESSEX. There was one instance where 624 black soldiers transferred to the Navy from an all-black Army unit in order to give the Navy more manpower. Although the Navy Medal of Honor only came into being during the Civil War, six black sailors were awarded the Medal for bravery and gallantry during that war. The presence of blacks in the United States Navy continued to be a factor of note in this nation's next war. Twenty-two of the 330 sailors who were lost when the Battleship MAINE was sunk in Havana, Cuba Harbor on February 15, 1898 were black. The ten-week war that eventually ensued, the Spanish-American War, also saw the black American sailor distinguish himself beyond the call of duty. Robert Penn, a Fireman First Class aboard the USS IOWA, was one of the six black Americans to receive the Medal of Honor for bravery in that short war. John Henry Turpin was a black enlisted man in the Navy who enlisted in 112 1883 and survived the sinking of the MAINE. He remained in the Navy until 1925 and retired with the rank of Chief Gunner's Mate. Even as late as World War I, with its distinct policy of racial segregation, the Navy permitted mixed racial crews, and blacks were eligible for all ratings. The record shows that there was limited action for blacks in that war, but Edward Donohue Pierson, a black sailor from Houston, Texas, won the French Croix de Guerre for his act of valor when he was wounded aboard the USS MOUNT VERNON as it was torpedoed off the coast of France. World War II, Doris Miller's war, was another matter altogether. Blacks had generally been barred from enlisting in the Navy from the end of World War I through 1932. Even upon being allowed to enlist and serve in the Navy again, such enlistments were restricted to the messman branch. Black sailors had no choice but to serve in that branch. There were, however, blacks in other rated positions and other branches of the Navy at that time, but they were already in the Navy. Although the Navy had instituted and maintained a strict code of racial segregation, there were six rated blacks in the Regular Navy, 23 rated blacks had returned from retirement and 14 rated blacks were in the Fleet Reserve. It would seem to be the epitome of irony that a black sailor in the messman branch (Doris Miller) would be spoken of as this nation's first World War II hero. That sailor was subsequently awarded the Navy Cross for his acts of valor. Three other black messmen also received the Navy Cross for their acts of valor in this war. They were William Pinkney (USS ENTERPRISE), Leonard Harmon (USS SAN FRANCISCO), and Eli Benjamin (USS INTREPID). None of these, however, received the acclaim of the black sailor who was reported to be the first American hero of World War II, a A group of black World War I sailors "on liberty." 113 World War II cook, William C. Pinckney of Beaufort, South Carolina, receives the Navy Cross for valor aboard the USS ENTERPRISE. hero at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. This sailor's act of bravery seemed to have had an immediate impact by subsequently appearing to open the door of opportunity for blacks to serve in other branches and ratings. On the 9th of January, 1942, one month and two days after Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt instructed the Navy to provide more opportunities for blacks in his memo that stated: "1 think that with all of the Navy activities, the Bureau of Navy might invent something that colored enlistees could do in addition to the rating of messmen." Doors did begin to open slowly for blacks in the Navy. In 1943, two ships, the destroyer escort MASON and the subchaser PC1264 went to sea with all-black crews except the officers. Six months later, the white officers were replaced with black officers and the first phase of the integration experiment by the Navy was underway, even the ships involved had all-black crews. It is probable that no one realized at the time that this nation's first black admiral would come from that experiment. As of June 30, 1945, the Navy had 165,000 blacks on its rolls, of whom 123,000 had served overseas. No one can say for sure just what impact the act of bravery by the black messman at Pearl Harbor had upon the slowly changing racial atmosphere in the Navy, but several other things are known. For one thing, a Navy recruitment poster showing the black Pearl Harbor hero in uniform as something other than a cook was distributed widely to attract other young blacks into the Navy. For President Roosevelt shakes hands with a black sailor after relaxing restrictions occasioned by racial discrimination during World War II. 114 Two black sailors stand before the USS MASON, a World War II destroyer manned by a predominantly black crew. another, all of the other branches of the Navy opened to blacks as a result of the January 9, 1942 directive. However, it appeared that the equal opportunity provision of President Roosevelt's Executive Order 8802 and the nondiscrimination provisions in the Selective Service Act had had little or no effect upon the racial attitude of Navy Secretary Frank Knox. His policies of racial segregation continued to prevail. Things did begin to change later on in the war when James Forestal became Secretary of the Navy upon the death of Secretary Knox. In addition to the 165,000 blacks who served in the Navy, 17,000 served in the Marines, 5,000 served in all ratings of the Coast Guard, 12,500 served in the Sea Bees (Construction Battalions), and 24,000 served in the Merchant Marine. The Merchant Marine was distinctly different from the Navy proper as far as its racial policies were concerned. It operated in many instances on a basis of equal opportunity and equal treatment regardless of race. The Navy was later to proclaim this as a general practice. For example, four blacks became full Captains in the Merchant Marine and had complete supervisory authority of racially-mixed crews. Even when the Captain was white, there generally were racially mixed crews serving in all ratings. Liberty ships were named in honor of 14 outstanding black Americans. One of those ships was named in honor of Harriet Tubman, a former female slave. 115 A tanker was named in honor of the late black poet, Paul Lawrence Dunbar. Victory Ships were named in honor of Fisk University, Tuskegee Institute, Howard University and Lane College. All of these were black institutions of higher learning. However, it was not in the Merchant Marine with its more liberal racial policies that a black American at sea had become a national hero. It was in the United States Navy, with its strict policies of racial segregation and all that it implies. Doris Miller was that black American sailor. Rear Admiral Samuel L. Gravely, the first black American in the Navy to reach the rank of Admiral Illustration of Dorie Miller and the USS MILLER 116 THE BLACK AMERICAN IN THE AIR FORCE "Negroes had been attempting to gain entrance to the Army Air Corps since World War I." (EMPLOYMENT OF NEGRO TROOPS, p. 55) Strangely enough, there had been significant support for such effort in several quarters, including the United States Congress. The strongest of such support came from Senator Harry Swartz of Wyoming and Senator Styles Bridges of New Hampshire. While Senator Swartz offered a bill in March of 1939 that provided for the training of black pilots, Senator Bridges offered an amendment which provided: "That the Secretary of War is specifically authorized to establish at appropriate Negro colleges identical equipment, instructions, and facilities for training Negro air pilots, mechanics and others for service in the United States Regular Army as is now available in the Air Corps Training Center." (CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, March 7, 1939, p 2367, Ulysses S. Lee) In 1939 and 1940, Congress enacted three laws which were to have a significant impact upon blacks in the Army Air Forces (AAF). One of these laws was the controversial Public Law 18 (approved on April 3, 1939). P.L. 18 provided for the large-scale expansion of the Air Corps. One section stipulated that of the civilian schools contracted to conduct the primary flying training for the Army Air Corps, at least one of the schools had to be designated for the training of blacks. (BLACKS IN THE ARMY AIR FORCES DURING WORLD WAR II, pp. 21-22) The exclusion of blacks from the Air Corps was based upon factors other than simply denying them the right to enlist just because they were black. For example, since there were no black officers in the Air Corps, there had been no justification to appoint black cadets. However, it did not take the War Department long to change that position and let it be known that blacks are not attracted to the Air Corps in the same manner as whites. The NAACP replied: "It is obvious that colored men cannot be attracted to the field of aviation in the same way or to the same extent as the white man when the door to that field is slammed in the colored man's face..."(U.S. Lee, p. 56) The point which had been made by the War Department was reinforced by General Henry H. Arnold in the statement by the Operations Division that..."the training of white and negro pilots in the same unit is out of the question." The Selective Service Act of 1940 did include a non-discrimination clause, but that meant that blacks would not be discriminated against in that every tenth man called in the draft would be black. Since it was understood that black soldiers would be assigned only to all-black units, the assessment of discriminatory action was simply a matter of evaluating the treatment about which one black would complain against the treatment of other blacks. War Department policy had taken the position that segregation did not mean discrimination, and in becoming official policy, the creation of all black units for black troops became the order of the day. 117 There were problems, however, in the Air Forces. An earlier edition of BLACKS IN THE MILITARY states that: "The policy of segregation required that blacks, many of them poorly educated, had to fill every specialty, regardless of necessary skills, in an entire unit-for instance as pilots, gunners, bombadiers, clerks and mechanics in a segregated Air Forces Squadron." (p. 104) The task of bringing the reality of the Army's racial practices more closely into line with its announced policy of separate-but-equal treatment fell to the Secretary of War's Committee on Negro Affairs. In addition to maintaining the exclusion of blacks from white units, and in addition to the joy of greatly expanding its forces which had been authorized under P. L. 18, the Air Forces was blatantly opposed to the provision in the law which called for the training of black pilots. Accepting blacks for pilot training was only one aspect of the Air Force opposition; the idea of accepting them into the Air Forces in any category was a source of opposition. However, instead of stating that it was opposed to the admission of blacks, the Air Forces tactic was to strongly recommend that there be no change in existing War Department policy regarding the Air Forces. Such opposition, however, was to little or no avail in the face of the unrelenting pressure by blacks to become a part of the Army Air Forces (AAF) and serve in all of its components. The first crack in the solid wall of opposition by AAF brass came when the War Department officials forced the Air Corps to develop suitable plans for the utilization of blacks and to accept its share of black Selective Service draftees. The plans also called for the establishment of a black flying unit. Tuskegee, Alabama, the home of the black college, Tuskegee Institute, was chosen as the sight for this training. Since there were no black officers in the Air Corps, and no blacks who could constitute a complete training staff, the first training staff at Tuskegee was to be eleven white officers and fifteen white non-commissioned officers. On January 16, 1941, the War Department announced the formation of the 99th Pursuit Squadron, a black flying unit to be trained at Tuskegee (BLACKS IN THE AAF, p. 24) A First Endorsement of the Plan had been issued by order of the Secretary of War on January 9, outlining the initial personnel to be trained as: (1) pursuit squadron personnel-210 enlisted men and 33 officers; (2) base group detachment-160 enlisted men and 10 officers; (3) weather and communications 20 enlisted men and two officers; (4) services-39 enlisted men and two officers for a total of 429 enlisted man and 47 officers. (BLACKS IN THE MILITARY, p. 110) The "Lonely Eagles," as black fighter pilots were to be called, faced many obstacles, all of which had to be overcome with alarming success if the experiment were to work. It was seen as no coincidence in many quarters that these first black pilots were to be pursuit pilots. There were both detractors and supporters of the idea. The original rationale was that their use of only single-seated aircraft required a limited training program where bombadiers, 118 navigators and gunners would not have to be trained. This lessened the strain and the impact of the segregated facilities and personnel utilized in the training program. The black Judge Hastie, Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War on black problems, offered another type of explanation. He contended that pursuit flying was the most difficult type of combat flying, and there was perhaps a wish among some (whites) that this difficulty would foster the black's failure as a combat pilot. There were others, however, who expressed a belief that combat pursuit flying was the most basic, and once the black pilot had mastered this, he could go on to more complex aspects of combat flying. It would be indeed misleading to assume that blacks served only in conjunction with black combat flying units during World War II. The table that follows shows blacks in the Army Air Forces from a low of 37,223 enlisted men and 142 officers in 1942 to a high of 145,242 enlisted men and 1,107 officers by D-Day in 1944. These figures do not include the thousands who served in Arms and Services with the Army Air Forces (BLACKS IN THE ARMY AIR FORCES, pp. 136-137). AAF BLACK MILITARY PERSONNEL - SEPTEMBER 1942-MARCH 1946 (does not include ASWAAF) Month/Year Total Officers Enlisted September 1942 37,223 142 37,081 December 1942 71,824 129 71,695 March 1943 106,409 255 106,154 June 1943 114,075 359 113,716 September 1943 130,372 605 129,767 December 1943 145,025 636 144,389 March 1944 140,857 904 139,953 June 1944 145,242 1,107 144,135 September 1944 140,728 1,243 139,485 December 1944 137,806 1,303 136,503 March 1945 136,827 1,464 135,363 June 1945 140,462 1,559 138,903 September 1945 133,447 1,511 131,936 December 1945 69,016 1,050 67,966 March 1946 42,564 778 41,786 119 While the number of blacks who served in the Army Air Forces is impressive, it should be realized that such figures are reflective of only a five year period of time. It is also realized that the act and the process of including blacks in the Air Forces in the first place, and the expansion of his numbers into all elements of the Air Forces occasioned much friction. The gross imbalance of blacks in quartermaster and engineer units meant that the Air Corps had to take significant numbers in order to help bring about a more equitable balance of blacks in service. This made it necessary to create new black units. At one time the Army thought about doing away with separate black and white draft calls and select draftees without regard to race or color quotas. Since the utilization of more than 10.6 percent blacks in the Army would have been interpreted as an act of having the black American take more than his proportionate share of the defense responsibility, the Navy would be called upon to accept more blacks. Selective Service had to maintain an equitable balance of black and white draftees. In order to accomplish this, at times the military had to create new black units with little or no military value in order to make room for the placement of the unwanted black soldiers. The greatly expanding Air Forces was the prime facilitator of such action. For example, when too many blacks were sent to a particular Air Force base to create special units for them, the practice of assigning them to "detachments" became widespread. There were other instances when white squadrons were created and a significant number of blacks were assigned to non-flight units to provide services and support for these squadrons. The Air Forces had planned to have 184 such squadrons by June 30, 1942. However, there were 266 squadrons by that time. (The Employment of Negro Troops) The aviation quartermaster truck company was another popular unit to be composed of all blacks, even when most of the other units at an airfield were white. This helped to create the atmosphere where "overloading" was a great fear with regard to black soldiers. The creation of air base security units was another practice that resulted in the increasing of blacks in the Air Forces. These (basically black) units were designed to "protect air bases from riots, parachute attacks and air raids." The original plan called for 67 air base security units, of which 57 of them were to be staffed by blacks. (Ibid., p.116) The subsequent expansion of the Air Corps by using more blacks took place as new units in Arms and Services worked in conjunction with the Air Forces. The problems associated with the inclusion of large numbers of black troops in the Air Forces was not simply problems of consequence simply because the soldiers were black. Many communities did not want any soldiers at all in their localities and there were others that did not care to have black soldiers from the North in their areas. The feeling that the Air Forces required personnel with higher training 120 and better skills made it appear almost certainly that Air Forces personnel would consist of many Northern blacks. The year 1943 has been looked upon as the turning point with regard to white attitudes toward blacks in the Air Forces. There is nothing magic about the year 1943, but the constant pressure that had been applied by the black community, by the NAACP, by civil rights leaders and by entities within the War Department itself helped to bring about a measure of change. After 1943, policymakers became aware of the full scope of racial problems and they attempted to find viable solutions. (BLACKS IN THE ARMY AIR FORCES DURING WORLD WAR II p. 73) Following World War II, President Truman issued Executive Order 9981 to provide equality of treatment and opportunity for the Armed Forces of the United States. Racial integration was inherent in that order. There was, however, one other major event. It was also decided that the Air Corps would be dissolved as such and made into a third major branch of the United States military establishment. Coming after it did in the wake of equality of treatment and opportunity, the United State Air Force came into existence without much of the bitterness and acrimony that prevailed in the Army and the Navy due to racial inequality. Therefore, the Air Force, and even the Air Force Academy, always made opportunities for blacks, woman and other minorities to pursue careers and enlistment terms in a more hopeful and less hostile atmosphere. This does not mean that there was no racism, racial friction or racial animosity in the Air Force. But whatever racial problems of this nature that did exist in the Air Force existed on a less hostile basis. It was the Air Force that gave this nation its first black four-star general in Daniel "Chappie" James. It was during the conflicts in Korea and Vietnam that it was proven beyond a doubt that an integrated Air Force was an American military imperative. As of this date, no black member of the American Air Force has received the Air Force Medal of Honor. Blacks in the Air Force have, however, contributed significantly to this nations' military efforts, and they currently occupy positions of notable significance. Some hold and have held general officer ranks in the Air Force and the Air National Guard. The charts that follow give some indication of efforts that the Air Force has taken in the interest of the recruitment and training of blacks for careers or service in the Air Force. Colonel "Chappie" James makes a point at a White House meeting 121 UPDATE OF AFROTC MINORITY PROGRAMS PARTICIPATION AT COLLEGE FAIRS AND CONVENTIONS PILOT ALLOCATIONS PILOT ALLOCATIONS, HBU MINORITY ENROLLMENT SCHOLARSHIP ENROLLMENT 122 THE BLACK AMERICAN IN THE MARINE CORPS "According to surviving muster and pay rolls, there were at least three blacks in the ranks of the Continental Marines and ten others who served on ships of the navies of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania." (Henry L. Shaw, Jr. and Ralph W. Donnely, BLACKS IN THE MARINE CORPS, Washington, D.C., History and Museum Division, Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps, 1975, p. ix). It is stated further that: "It is probable that more blacks served as Marines in the Revolution who were not identified as such on the rolls. The first recorded black Marine in the Connecticut service was John Martin or "Keto," a slave of William Marshall of Wilmington, Delaware, who was recruited without Marshall's knowledge or permission by Marine Captain Miles Pennington in April, 1776. Miles served on board the Connecticut brig REPRISAL until October of 1777 when the ship floundered off the Newfoundland Banks. All of the crew except the cook were lost. On 27 August 1776, Isaac Walker, identified on the rolls as a Negro, was enlisted in Captain Mullan's Company of Continental Marines in Philadelphia, and on October 1, a recruit listed simply as "Orange...a Negro" was enrolled. Both of these men were still on the Company payroll as of April 1, 1777. It is quite possible that they served with Mullan's unit in the Second Battle of Trenton (Assunipik Creek) on January 2, 1777 and in the Battle of Princeton the following Day." (Courtesy McGregor and Nalty) The black men who served in the Marines have been identified from Revolutionary War records. However, when the Continental Marines went out of existence around April of 1784, other blacks were not expected to serve in the reestablished Marine Corps. The Secretary of War prescribed a set of rules on March 16, 1798 which provided that "No Negro, Mulatto or Indian is to be enlisted." (Office of Naval Records and Library, NAVAL OPERATIONS FROM FEBRUARY, 1797 to October 1798, Washington, DC, 1935, Vol 1, p. 41). Strangely enough, the ability of the blacks to serve in the Marine Corps during this century was not the result of a military endeavor, or an expressed military need. This opportunity for service was made possible as a result of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's response to A. Philip Randolph's threatened March on Washington. On June 25, 1941, the President issued EXECUTIVE ORDER 8802, establishing the Fair Employment Practices Commission which stated: "In offering the policy of full participation in the defense program by all persons regardless of color, race, creed or national origin, and directing certain action in furtherance of said policy, ...all departments of the government, including the Armed Forces, shall lead the way in erasing discrimination over color or race." This order was particularly disturbing to the Marine Corps which was already dealing with the problem of expanding due to the preparations that had to be made in the event that this country was drawn into World War II. In 123 support of his opposition to having blacks enlisted in the Marine Corps, Major General Thomas Holcomb spoke on the subject "Enlistment of the Colored Race." He said, "There would be a definite loss of efficiency in the Marine Corps if we have to take Negroes." (Operations Branch of the Naval Historical Center; courtesy of McGregor and Nalty). General Holcomb stated further, "...the Negro race has every opportunity now to satisfy its aspirations for combat in the Army -- a very much larger organization than the Navy or the Marine Corps and their desire to enter the naval service is largely, I think, to break into a club that does not want them." Wendell Wilkie, titular head of the Republican party at the time, challenged the practice of functional American democracy in his address before the National NAACP Conference in Los Angeles when he described the Navy's (and Marine Corps') racial bias against blacks. He asked, "Are we always as alert to the practice (of democracy) here at home as we are to proclaim it abroad?" (R. L. Lapica, FACTS OF FILE YEARBOOK, 1942.) Although the Secretary of the Navy had announced that on June 1, 1942, the Navy would begin to recruit 1,000 blacks a month, and that the Marines would have a battalion of 900 black men (during July and August), it was Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt who insisted that Marine Corps brass make plans and provisions to take blacks into the Corps immediately. In spite of the uncompromising insistence of Mrs. Roosevelt, blacks did not enter the Marine Corps until August of 1942, and then only in segregated units. Most black marines were placed in service units -- depot companies and ammunition companies. The first blacks to come into the Marine Corps did not do so as a result of the the Selective Service and Training Act of 1940 (the draft); they were volunteers. As it had been with the Air Corps in its efforts to train blacks as fighter pilots in its expansion program, the Marine Corps experienced similar problems: location and facilities to train a new, segregated unit without a black cadre. The Air Corps had designated Tuskegee Institute as the location to train the 99th Pursuit Squadron as the first black fighter pilot unit. The Marine Corps designed Montford Point as the location to train the Headquarters and Service Battery of the 51st Composite Defense Battalion as the first unit of black Marines. The initial contingent of black Marines was indeed a strange lot of volunteers. There were those young men who were entering as raw recruits, new to any type of military training. There were those who had served in the Army and the Navy and had requested discharges in order to enlist in the Marines. There were also those young black college graduates who felt that the Marines offered them better opportunities than the Army or the Navy, since all positions of rank were open to blacks in this new military endeavor. As those young men were in the process of completing their boot training, they discovered what other black service men in other communities had discovered or were in the process of discovering: racial discrimination against blacks was pervasive off the base. They 124 also learned that the uniform of a United States Marine had no positive impact upon people who disliked blacks. To their consternation, they found that they always had to ride on the back of the bus when in town. They discovered that in many instances they were not even allowed to ride on the bus at all. This problem was solved when Marine Corps officials made trucks available to carry black Marines to towns where they could mingle with other black people. The trucks also waited and brought them back to the base. Most of those who trained the early groups of black Marines were white Southerners. However, the vast majority of the black Marines said that they were treated "tough" but fair and just. They said that the training and discipline were seemingly inhuman at times, but that their white trainers simply wanted to make them good marines. They accepted their instructors and their segregated facilities in the spirit of the "pride of the Corps" as one veteran had put it. The 51st Composite Defense Battalion was trained and equipped as a combat unit, and so was the 52nd which followed it. They discovered, however, that even overseas, they were not performing as combat units but as service and supply units to white combat Marine units. Only two combat black combat units were created, the 51st and 52nd Defense Battalions. Although 75 percent of the A platoon of black Marine recruits 125 17,000 black Marines saw service overseas, only a few of them saw combat. The story of the black Marine in combat did change, and it was a change that allowed them to show that they could account for themselves in combat on an equal basis with white Marines. This came about after the integration of the American military forces. On August 21, 1968, this nation's highest military award, the Medal of Honor, was made posthumously in the name of PFC James Anderson. Jr. for meritorious service in Vietnam. Since that time, other black Marines have also received that award for acts of valor in Vietnam. The black Marine in Vietnam had gone a long way in combat service since he was so highly praised for his service type operation in Iwo Jima. The Honorable J. Gary Cooper, now a Marine Corps Reserve Major General serving in the Pentagon, made history when he became the first black officer to lead Marines into combat. On October 1, 1952, Frank E. Petersen was commissioned as the first black Marine Corps pilot. After compiling an exemplary record as a combat pilot in Korea and Vietnam, Petersen was promoted to the rank of Brigidier General. He recently retired as a Lieutenant General. Two black Marines take cover on the beach at Iwo Jima on D-Day while the shattered hulk of a DUKW smokes behind them. 126 The listing below gives some indication of the size, duties and scope of black Marines during World War II. BLACK MARINE UNITS OF THE FLEET MARINE FORCE, WORLD WAR II Date of Date of Activation Unit Designation Deactivation 18 Aug 1942......... 51st Composite Def Bn............. 31 Jan 1946...... 8 Mar 1943.......... 1st Marine Depot Co............... 4 Jan 1946....... 23 Apr 1943......... 2d Marine Depot Co................ 4 Jan 1946....... 23 Apr 1943......... 3d Marine Depot Co................ 4 Jan 1946....... 1 June 1943......... 4th Marine Depot Co............... 31 Oct 1945...... 8 Jul 1943.......... 5th Marine Depot Co............... 31 Oct 1945...... 8 Jul 1943.......... 6th Marine Depot Co............... 31 Aug 1943...... 16 Aug 1943......... 7th Marine Depot Co............... 11 Dec 1945...... 16 Aug 1943......... 8th Marine Depot Co............... 10 Dec 1945...... 15 Sep 1943......... 9th Marine Depot Co............... 31 Dec 1945...... 15 Sep 1943......... 10th Marine Depot Co.............. 22 Dec 1945...... 1 Oct 1943.......... 1st Marine Ammunition Co.......... 21 Feb 1946...... 7 Oct 1943.......... 11th Marine Depot Co.............. 4 Dec 1945....... 7 Oct 1943.......... 12th Marine Depot Co.............. 11 Dec 1945...... 1 Nov 1943.......... 13th Marine Depot Co.............. 30 Nov 1945...... 1 Nov 1943.......... 14th Marine Depot Co.............. 30 Nov 1945...... 1 Nov 1943.......... 2d Marine Ammunition Co........... 20 Jan 1946...... 1 Dec 1943.......... 15th Marine Depot Co.............. 30 Nov 1945...... 2 Dec 1943.......... 16th Marine Depot Co.............. 29 Jan 1946...... 2 Dec 1943.......... 3d Marine Ammunition Co........... 25 Feb 1946...... 15 Dec 1943......... 52d Defense Bn.................... 14 May 1946...... 1 Jan 1944.......... 17th Marine Depot Co.............. 16 Jan 1946...... 1 Jan 1944.......... 18th Marine Depot Co.............. 29 Jan 1946...... 1 Jan 1944.......... 4th Marine Ammunition Co.......... 8 Mar 1946....... 1 Feb 1944.......... 19th Marine Depot Co.............. 25 Feb 1946...... 1 Feb 1944.......... 20th Marine Depot Co.............. 21 Feb 1946...... 1 Feb 1944.......... 5th Marine Ammunition Co.......... 4 Jul 1946....... 1 Mar 1944.......... 21st Marine Depot Co.............. 2 Apr 1946....... 1 Mar 1944.......... 22nd Marine Depot Co.............. 2 Apr 1946....... 1 Mar 1944.......... 6th Ammunition Co................. 15 Dec 1945...... 1 Apr 1944.......... 23d Marine Depot Co............... 5 Apr 1946....... 1 Apr 1944.......... 24th Marine Depot Co.............. 15 Nov 1945...... 1 Apr 1944.......... 7th Marine Ammunition Co.......... 8 May 1946....... 1 May 1944.......... 25th Marine Depot Co.............. 2 May 1946....... 1 May 1944.......... 26th Marine Depot Co.............. 2 May 1946....... 1 May 1944.......... 8th Marine Depot Co............... 30 Sep 1947...... 1 Jun 1944.......... 27th Marine Depot Co.............. 16 Apr 1946...... 1 Jun 1944.......... 28 Marine Depot Co ............... 2 May 1946....... 1 Jun 1944.......... 9th Marine Ammunition Co.......... 4 Jul 1946....... 1 Jul 1944.......... 29th Marine Depot Co.............. 8 May 1946....... 1 Jul 1944.......... 30th Marine Depot Co.............. 8 Apr 1946....... 1 Jul 1944.......... 10th Marine Ammunition Co......... 6 May 1946....... 1 Aug 1944.......... 31st Marine Depot Co.............. 30 Nov 1945...... 1 Aug 1944.......... 32d Marine Depot Co............... 8 May 1946....... 1 Aug 1944.......... 11th Marine Ammunition Co......... 4 Jul 1946....... 1 Sep 1944.......... 33d Marine Depot Co............... 31 Jan 1946...... 1 Sep 1944.......... 34th Marine Depot Co.............. 31 Jan 1946...... 1 Sep 1944.......... 12th Marine Ammunition Co......... 5 Apr 1946....... 1 Oct 1944.......... 35th Marine Depot Co.............. 6 Jun 1946....... 1 Oct 1944.......... 36th Marine Depot Co.............. 17 Jun 1946...... 1 Nov 1944.......... 37th Marine Depot Co.............. 2 Apr 1946....... 1 Nov 1944.......... 38th Marine Depot Co.............. 2 Apr 1946....... 1 Nov 1944.......... 5th Marine Depot Co.............. 21 Feb 1946...... 1 Dec 1944.......... 6th Marine Depot Co.............. 31 Dec 1945...... 1 Dec 1944.......... 39th Marine Depot Co............. 10 Jun 1946...... 1 Dec 1944.......... 40th Marine Depot Co............. 4 May 1946....... 3 Mar 1945.......... 41th Marine Depot Co............. 23 Mar 1946...... 14 Mar 1945......... 42th Marine Depot Co............. 15 Mar 1946...... 14 Mar 1945......... 43th Marine Depot Co............. 15 Mar 1946...... 18 Apr 1945......... 44th Marine Depot Co............. 8 Apr 1946....... 10 Aug 1945......... 45th Marine Depot Co............. 6 Jun 1946....... 1 Oct 1945.......... 46th Marine Depot Co............. 15 Jul 1946...... 1 Oct 1945.......... 47th Marine Depot Co............. 31 Oct 1946...... 1 Oct 1945.......... 48th Marine Depot Co............. 10 Jun 1946...... 1 Oct 1945.......... 49th Marine Depot Co............. 30 Sep 1947...... 127 THE BLACK AMERICAN IN THE U.S. COAST GUARD Black Americans in the U.S. Coast Guard represent a rich and proud heritage of Blacks who have made many outstanding contributions throughout the history of the Coast Guard and its vestigal components: the Revenue Cutter Service, the Life Saving Service, and the Lighthouse Service. These men and women, both military and civilian, continue to uphold the proud traditions of this unique sea service. The accomplishments of Captain Michael Healy provide an excellent example of these contributions. The son of a mulatto slave girl in Macon, Georgia, Healy applied to and was accepted by the Revenue Cutter Service on March 7, 1865. He was promoted to Second Lieutenant on June 6, 1866, First Lieutenant on July 20, 1870, and Captain on March 3, 1883. While serving on the Cutter RUSH and patrolling the Alaskan waters for the first time, Healy became known as a brilliant seaman and was often considered the best sailor in the North. In a feature article on January 28, 1884, the NEW YORK SUN described Captain Healy as "...a good deal more distinguished person in the waters of the far Northwest than any president of the United States or any potentate of Europe has yet to become..." Undoubtedly, Healy's most notable feat took place when he discovered a large number of starving Alaskan natives on King Island. He devised a plan to import reindeer in order for the natives to survive. Over a ten year period beginning in 1879, revenue cutters delivered some 1,100 reindeer. These newly domesticated herds would eventually blossom to a number of 500,000, supplying ample food and clothing to the native population. When Captain Healy retired on September 22, 1903, he was the third highest ranking officer in the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service. During the Spanish-American War, two black cuttermen distinguished themselves at the Battle of Cardenas Bay in Cuba. The revenue cutter HUDSON joined two U.S. Navy gun boats and a torpedo boat, WINSLOW, for a raid into the Spanish-fortified Cardenas Bay on May 11, 1898. The WINSLOW was severely damaged and began drifting helplessly toward the shore from which the Spaniards were firing. While only 100 feet from the beach and facing total disintegration from the concentrated enemy fire, the WINSLOW was miraculously rescued when the HUDSON managed to tow the stricken vessel to safety. Each of the crewmen of the HUDSON were awarded Silver Medals as recommended by President McKinley. 129 The history of Blacks in the U.S. Lighthouse Service is sketchy; nevertheless, there are a few recorded instances which are notable. Of particular mention is the action taken by a Black during the Seminole Indian Wars. The black assistant at a lighthouse was fatally injured while defending the structure against attacking Indians. A lightship that was reestablished in 1862 off the coast of South Carolina during the Civil War was manned solely by Blacks. Blacks played a significant role in the U.S. Life-Saving Service, serving as lifesavers stationed along the Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina shores. The Blacks employed by the Life-Saving Service were well equipped to handle boats and were knowledgeable of the surf and sea. Like all other surfmen, their primary duty was to aid ships in distress. The Black surfmen saved many lives and associated property. The Pea Island Life-Saving Station, manned by an all-Black crew after Richard Etheridge was named as Keeper on January 24, 1880 and allowed to select his own crew, is well remembered for its place in history. The rigorous lifesaving drills Etheridge expected from his crew proved invaluable when the three-masted schooner, the E.S. NEWMAN, caught in a terrifying storm, slammed onto the beach near Cape Fear, N.C., two miles south of Pea Island Station. The crew was rounded up and the surfboat launched after surfman Theodore Meekins saw the first distress flare and immediately notified Etheridge. Fighting the strong tide and sweeping currents, the dedicated lifesavers struggled to make their way to a point opposite the schooner only to find that there was no dry land. The quick-witted Etheridge, having earned the reputation as being one of the most daring lifesavers in the service, tied two of his surfmen together. Connected to shore by a long line, they fought their way through the roaring breakers and finally reached the schooner. The seemingly inexhaustible Pea Island crewmembers journeyed through the perilous waters ten times and rescued all nine persons on board. In his testimony in June of 1943, Lieutenant Carlton Skinner proposed that a group of Black seamen be provided with practical seagoing experience in a completed integrated operation. This proposal led to the Cutter Some black Coast Guardsmen of Pea Island Station. 130 SEACLOUD being the first integrated ship in the Armed Forces. Although the SEACLOUD was decommissioned in November 1944, its purpose was rudimentarily achieved in part because it paved the way for other Blacks to serve on ships that were not completely segregated. An example of Blacks displaying military expertise was exhibited by a crew of stewards who manned a battle station. This crew of the cutter CAMPBELL earned medals for "heroic achievement" when the cutter rammed and sank a German submarine on February 22, 1943. Louis Etheridge, Captain of the Black gun crew, was presented the Bronze Medal and a personal letter of congratulations from the Commandant. Charles W. David, Jr., a messman aboard a Coast Guard cutter, was one of the several Black mess attendants who gave up their lives in the line of duty in the Coast Guard. When his ship went to the aid of a torpedoed transport in the North Atlantic, David drove overboard repeatedly and rescued several men. His last rescue was that of LT Langford Anderson, executive officer of the cutter. He met his death while attempting to rescue others. 131 TOP RANKING BLACKS IN THE U.S. COAST GUARD & NOTABLE BLACK COAST GUARD PERSONNEL Captain Bobby C. Wilks USCG (Ret): The first Black to attain the rank of Captain in the Coast Guard, the first Black aviator, and the first Black to command a major unit, Coast Guard Air Station Brooklyn, NY. Captain Edward R. Williams, USCGR: Presently the highest ranking Black in the Coast Guard. Advisor to the Commandant on Minority Issues, Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, D.C. Commander Melvin W. Williams, USPHS: Highest ranking Black in the Public Health Service assigned to the Coast Guard. Chief, Coast Guard Headquarters Medical Clinic, Washington, D.C. Commander John G. Witherspoon: Commanding Officer, Vessel Traffic System Houston/Galveston, TX. Commander Merle J. Smith, Jr., USCGR (Ret): First Black graduate of the Coast Guard Academy and former law instructor at the Academy. Recipient of the Bronze Star during service in Vietnam in 1969. Lieutenant Daphne Reese: The highest ranking Black female in the Coast Guard; Graduate School, University of San Francisco School of Law. Commander Percy O. Norwood, Jr., Chief, Readiness & Plans Staff, Maintenance & Logistics Command, Alameda, CA. Commander Charles B. Williams, Assistant Chief, Telecommunications Systems, Washington, D.C. Chief Petty Officer Alexander P. Haley: (author of Roots) USCG (Ret). He became the first chief journalist in the Coast Guard. Chief Petty Officer Pamela D. Autry: The first Black female chief petty officer in the Coast Guard. Ensign Linda Rodriguez and Ensign Thomasina Sconiers: First Black female graduates of Coast Guard Officer Candidate School. Chief Warrant Officer Lavonia Bass, USCGR: First Black female warrant officer. Ninth Coast Guard District, Cleveland, OH. Clarence Samuels: First Black chief photographer in the Coast Guard; first Black to command a cutter during war. The Berry Family: This Black family from the Outer Banks of North Carolina has been active in the Coast Guard for over ninety continuous years. Its members have served throughout the Coast Guard, including Pea Island Station where Maxie McKinley Berry, Sr. commanded. Commander Samuel E. Burton, Commanding Officer, Marine Safety Office Honolulu, HI. 132 TOP RANKING BLACKS IN THE U.S. COAST GUARD & NOTABLE BLACK COAST GUARD PERSONNEL Commander Samuel E. Burton, Commanding Officer, Marine Safety Office Honolulu, HI. Commander Elmo J. Peters, Jr., Executive Officer, Support Center New Orleans, LA. Lieutenant Sharon D. Donald, Aide to District Commander and Public Affairs Officer, 5th Coast Guard District, Portsmouth, VA. Lieutenant Anne V. Stevens, Executive Officer, USCG Group St. Petersburg, FL. SSCM Robert L. Bonnette, USCG (Ret). Former Program Manager, Enlisted Guaranteed Schools, Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, D.C. YNCM C. L. Sutton, Assistant Chief, Personnel Branch, Eighth Coast Guard District, New Orleans, LA. MKCM Norman Wilson, Executive Officer Naval Engineering, USCG Group Miami, FL. YNC Myra L. Maxwell, Officer of Civil Rights, USCG Headquarters, Washington, D.C. Lieutenant Rhonda F. Gadsden, Communications Officer, USCG Group New York, NY. RDCM David C. Bunch, Non-Resident Course/Exam Writer, Reserve Training Center, Yorktown, VA. QMCM Curtis E. Scott, USCG Training Center, Petaluma, CA. MKCM Stephen R. Spencer, Maintenance & Logistics Command Atlantic, New York, NY. YNC Doris H. Hull, USCG Training Center, Cape May, NJ. 133 Captain Michael Healy, promoted to this rank on March 3, 1883, was the third highest ranking officer in the US Revenue Cutter Service at the time of his retirement in 1903. Alexander Haley, retired Chief Petty Officer, was the first black chief journalist in the Coast Guard. He is well-known as the author of Roots. 134 THE BLACK AMERICAN IN THE MERCHANT MARINE Approximately 24,000 American blacks served in the Merchant Marine during World War II. Unlike the discrimination that they faced in the Navy, blacks were greeted with the nondiscrimination policy of the Merchant Marine at the training center. It was here that prospective seamen of both races were trained in programs that made no distinctions regarding race or color. There were quite a number of registered reports of racial discrimination in this organization, but on the whole, the policies of the Merchant Marine remained basically fair, and black Americans received equal treatment and equal opportunity. Blacks worked in every capacity aboard the ships in the Merchant Marine. Four blacks were full captains of liberty ships during the war, serving over racially mixed crews. Liberty ships, Victory ships and an oil tanker were named in honor of black Americans and black American colleges. One of those ships was named in honor of a former black female slave. Those ships were named as follows: Liberty Ships The Booker T. Washington The George Washington Carver The Frederick Douglass The John Merrick The Robert L. Vann The James Weldon Johnson The John Hope The William Cox The Robert S. Abbott The Harriet Tubman** The George A. Lawson The Edward S. Savoy Tanker The Paul Lawrence Dunbar Victory Ships The Fisk Victory The Tuskegee Victory The Howard Victory The Lane Victory **The World War II Liberty ship named in honor of this former slave and freedom fighter 135 During World War II, a liberty ship was named in honor of this Civil War era female slave, Harriett Tubman Captain Hugh Mulzac (left) of the BOOKER T. WASHINGTON, was the first black to command a ship in the Merchant Marine. 136 CHAPTER IV THE BLACK FEMALE IN PURSUIT OF MILITARY OBJECTIVES FROM COLONIAL TIMES AND SLAVERY THROUGH EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY THE BLACK FEMALE IN THE MILITARY During the pre-Colonial and the Colonial Periods, black women played great support roles in providing assistance to the Colonial Militia. For example, they were known to move into the "big house" with the wife of the slaveowner when he went away to serve in the militia. The black woman also tended his wounds when necessary. It was also she who worked shoulder-to-shoulder with the men in building fortifications for safety from both the Indians and the British. The greatest role that the black female played in the Revolutionary War was that of spying on the British and keeping Colonial authorities informed. They also helped to tend the sick and wounded throughout the war. When freedom from slavery was promised to some of those who helped in the war effort, black females found many ways in which they could be helpful and earn their freedom. They were motivated to earn their own freedom and do whatever they chose with their lives. This was seen by the women as an improvement over the practice of being bound to marry the black man who paid for their freedom. Lucy Terry was one of the black women whose written accounts of the Revolutionary War helped to give much information about the part that the black American, both male and female, played in that war. There were instances where black women disguised themselves as men and fought side by side with them against the British. Black women were also known to have kept the homes of whites in order and tended the farms so that those white women could go and be near their husbands in some engagements. Phillis Wheatley, a very literate black woman, used her writing ability to praise and express appreciation for General George Washington during the Revolutionary War. The appreciative Washington invited Wheatley to visit him at his headquarters in February of 1776. The War of 1812 was indeed a different type of war. Since this was basically a naval war, all females were limited with respect to what they could do. Black women, however, did help white women make bandages and tend the sick and wounded sailors. Their abilities to take charge of the farm and run things made it Phillis Wheatley, Revolutionary War era black female writer who was high in her praise of George Washington. 137 much easier for the white men to leave their homes and families and go off to war with the feeling that things would continue to run smoothly. The spirit of Harriet Tubman became a loving force for those who valued freedom. This black Union spy, unpaid soldier, volunteer nurse and freedom fighter had such strong love for freedom that she left her husband and brothers who chose not to run the risk of escaping from slavery. She was a friend of the famed white abolitionist John Brown of Harper's Ferry fame. Although she did not and could not receive any pay for her services, Tubman was often in the field with the soldiers. She could and did draw rations, acquiring the name of "General" Tubman. "General" Harriet Tubman with the troops during the Civil Her second husband was a Union Army veteran who preceded her in death. She died an ignored pauper in 1913. While the exploits of Harriet Tubman are generally known, the former slave Susan King Taylor became the most famous black woman who volunteered to help the troops during the Civil War. She escaped from slavery at the age of 12 and became a teacher for freedmen by the age of 16. Susan met and married Edward King, a freedman, in her latter teens. Her meeting with Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross, greatly influenced her activities as a volunteer nurse and launderer for black Civil War troops as she traveled with her husband's unit, the 33rd United States Colored Troops. Susan King's activities did not cease with the ending of the Civil War in 1865. She operated a school for blacks near Savannah, Georgia from 1866 through 1868, the year that her husband died. She then moved to Boston and continued her service-type activities for blacks. It was there she met and married Russel Taylor in 1879. While in Boston, she organized the Boston Branch of the Women's Relief Corps. In 1902, Susan King Taylor published her wartime memoirs, providing the only written record of the activities of black volunteer nurses during the Civil War. She died in Louisiana. 138 The Spanish-American War was one in which the black American female also played a role. Volunteer nurses were badly needed because the Army was not able to make adequate medical personnel available for combat units during this war. Most of the soldiers who became casualties fell from diseases associated with the tropical climate of Cuba and not from enemy bullets. Over 75 percent of all deaths attributed to that war resulted from disease, mostly typhoid and yellow fever. Many black female volunteer nurses fell victim to the farce that "their darker, thicker skin made them immune to those diseases." Black women therefore exposed themselves willingly to those diseases by nursing the soldiers who had Black female members of the Motor Corps assist a wounded soldier. become victims. They cared for the sick and helped to remove the dead and dying. Many of them became casualties of these diseases themselves upon their return home. However, due to the racially segregated nature of housing patterns which generally separated blacks from whites, the whites never really knew of the high rate of casualties that those blacks had suffered. Nevertheless, the Army was so pleased with the black nurses who had served as 32 contract nurses in the United States that bills were submitted to Congress (but defeated) to have the Army create a permanent corps of Army nurses. World War I was the first major American military conflict in which the black female had a recognized organization to provide them leadership and direction in their use as a resource. The National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses had been founded in 1909. When America entered World War I in 1917, the co-founder of the organization began to urge black nurses to enroll in the American Red Cross. Although the Red Cross was providing nurses for the military, it continued to make it clear that black nurses would not be recruited. None was accepted until two months before the war ended in November, 1918. Black nurses eventually be came a part of the Army Nurse Corps, after the influenza out- 139 break in 1919 in which more than 20 million people worldwide are said to have perished. Roughly one half million persons died in the United States. Black females served in other areas of endeavor during World War I. They made bandages, took over jobs that had been held by men who were needed as soldiers, worked in hospitals and troop centers and served in other relief organizations. A number of them served in the Hostess Houses that were being operated by the Young Womens' Christian Association. In addition, these YWCA workers wrote letters home for illiterate soldiers and read the incoming mail to them. Black females were most visible in helping to sell Liberty Bonds to help finance the war effort. World War II provided the first opportunity for significant numbers of black women to serve in the American military. On May 14, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Public Law 554 which created the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC). The British and the Canadians had already The mess hall of the 6888th in England allowed women to serve in their military in large numbers. The use of black women had been a point of much discussion before the President signed the bill into law. With the signing of the bill into law, black women could now serve in the American military in large numbers. However, two days after the law came into being, black female organizations made a loud protest to the President for naming Mrs. Ovetta Culp Hobby the Director of the WAAC. Mrs. Hobby's first public address was at Howard University where she put black women at ease with her forthrightness about what should be done in order to accommodate black females in the WAAC. Following her speech, the War Department announced that the WAAC would accept black female officers as well as enlisted personnel. Another obstacle to the enlistment of black females was removed when the War Department announced that black females would not replace black males in the military, but that they would serve openly when and where WAAC units were required. Fourteen months later, Congress allowed the conversion of the WAAC to the WAC (Women's Army Corps). Black females in the WAC never reached the six percent that had been envisioned by the War Department. The first year of its operation saw only 2,532 black females serving in the WAC. Black women in the WAC could serve overseas, but only if the theater commander made a written request for them. The European Theater 140 Black WAC's standing inspection of Operations was the only theater of operations where black WACs served. Black women in the WAC experienced the same skepticism that white women in the WAC had received with regard to respect for their ability to serve. In July of 1943, black WAC recruiting offices were withdrawn from the field, causing a storm of protest from black people. As a direct result of pressure from the American black community, 800 black women from the Army Air Forces and the Army Services Forces were organized into the 6888th Postal Battalion and sent to England and later to the European mainland where they performed a commendable service by unraveling the gigantic snag that had developed with regard to the delivery of mail to servicemen. In addition to the WAC, black women served in the Army Nurse Corps. In 1943, there were only 160 black nurses who were commisioned in the Army, and one year later, they were still restricted to hospitals at four Army stations which had "Negro hospitals." Although the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses estimated that there were 2,500 black nurses who could be recruited, as late as August of 1945, black nurses in the Army Nurse Corps never went beyond 479. Just as black males served in each theater of operation, black medical personnel also served around the globe. This number, however, did not always include black female nurses. When James V. Forestal became Secretary of the Navy in 1944, black females were asked to become a part of the Navy Nurse Corps. The fact that the Women's Reserve for the Navy did not include provisions for black women did much to discourage them from enlisting in the Navy in large numbers. On October 19, 1944, the Office for War Information issued a press release which stated that the Navy had lifted the color ban on black women and they could enlist in the WAVES. The next day, the Coast Guard announced that black females could enlist in the SPARS. Black women were not thrilled about enlisting in the Navy. Actually, it was not until March 8, 1945 that Phyllis Mae Daily of New York City became the first black female to serve in the Navy (Dennis Nelson, INTEGRATION OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, p. 138). No significant number of black women served in the Navy during World War II, and none served before. Their numbers never came close to the 8,000 officers and 70,000 enlisted women that had been sought for the WAVES. 141 Black women did not serve in the Navy Nurse Corps until late in World War II. In spite of the fact that the Navy stated that it would implement and maintain a non-discrimination program in the Navy Nurse Corps, only four black females were commissioned for service. It was not until the passage of the Armed Services Integration Act of June 1948 that the first black women became eligible to serve in the Marine Corps. On September 8, 1949, Annie L. Graham of Detroit became the first black female to enter the United States Marine Corps. No appreciable number of black women served in the Marines. Black women have served in the Nurse Corps in each branch of the military. This held true even for the Army, the largest of the military branches. There was, however, one startling fact that seems to indicate that the black female did not relish serving as an Army nurse. As late as the middle of 1944, the 163 black women who had been commissioned as Army nurses saw service in only four major Army facilities, and those were facilities in which there were "Negro" hospitals. In spite of the fact that the Army put forth a major effort to recruit black nurses, as late as 1945 only 479 had been recruited, out of the 2,500 that the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses had said would meet all requirements. It was in March of 1943 that each of the nine black doctors and 30 Army nurses who had been sent to Liberia (overseas duty) contacted malaria and were sent home. Sometime after the Norman- Black female volunteer war workers of the American Red Cross 142 dy invasion, 63 black nurses were given overseas assignments in England where they treated German prisoners of war. This was the first experiment in which "black American nurses were treating white males." When the experiment included treating white American soldiers in a rehabilitation center, a condition existed in which "black American nurses were treating white American males." The practice of making sure that black nurses treated only black soldiers continued to be the basic policy as black nurses and doctors were sent to Burma, Australia, New Guinea and the Philippines, staffing medical facilities where significant numbers of black soldiers were evident. Upon the death of Navy Secretary Knox and the installation of James V. Forestal in that position, an effort was made to have black women become a part of the Navy. It was due more to the fact that a woman was added to the Planning and Controls Board than any overt effort by Secretary Forestal. This effort was in reality one to have black women become a part of the Women's Reserve. The Women's Reserve had been established in 1942, but no provisions had been made for black women. (Dennis Nelson, INTEGRATION OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1945, page 133.) In seeking 5,000 black women, the Reserve took a policy statement that the recruitment of black women would be no different from that of white women. The Navy's racial segregation policies were retained, i.e. it was specified that the black women would be quartered separately and that they would see duty only in areas where there were black seamen were detailed to the larger naval bases. A World War II WAC marching band in a military parade 143 While black females did play roles in all of this nation's wars, the traditional roles that society had designated for females greatly restricted the number of women of either race who served in significant manners in those wars. Since the advent of equality of opportunity has gone into effect, black women serve in almost all ratings in all branches of the American military. One black female is currently on active duty in the army and one in the Air Force, both with the rank of Brigadier General. Two other female Brigadier Generals retired are retired from the Army. The Navy has an active duty female Captain. Black females served in various capacities during World War I 144
DACOWITS EMBLEM THE DEFENSE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON WOMEN IN THE SERVICES (DACOWITS) When General George C. Marshall became Secretary of Defense in September 1950, two of the issues he faced were effective implementation of racial integration in the uniformed services, and the need for more efficient use of human resources. To work with him in these most important areas, he selected a labor relations and manpower expert as the first Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Personnel Anna M. Rosenberg, the first and only woman to hold that position. By 1951, the war in Korea and other overseas requirements had convinced Defense planners of the need for more personnel. Secretary Marshall and Assistant Secretary Rosenberg decided to invite fifty women to Washington to form an advisory committee on how to obtain and efficiently utilize more women in the armed forces. Later known as the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS), the Committee met for the first time in September of 1951. Assistant Secretary Rosenberg hosted the group and chaired the meeting of business, educational and civic women. One of the first activities undertaken by DACOWITS was to advise the Department of Defense on how to recruit over 70,000 more women for military service by June 1952. This was a tremendous projected increase, as there were only some 40,000 women on active duty at that time. Blacks played a part in DACOWITS from its inception. Among the first black members was Ms. Dorothy I. Height, who later became the Chair of the National Council of Negro Women. In October 1951, DOD formally established DACOWITS and set forth its objectives. They were: (1) to inform the public of the need for women in the military; (2) to create further public acceptance of women in the services by emphasizing to parents how the military assumes responsibility for the welfare of women entering the service; and (3) to accelerate the recruitment of women, yet stress the quality as well as quantity of recruits. During its initial year DACOWITS made fifteen official recommendations, ten of which were implemented by the Department of Defense. These recommendations were made based upon briefings given to the committee by Department of Defense personnal, studies conducted by the Committee itself, and observations made by DACOWITS menbers during visits to various military installations. 145 In 1954, DACOWITS received a new charter which changed its role from recruiting women for military service to promoting the acceptance of a military career for women by the general public and the military itself. In addition, the Committee was to assist and advise the Secretary of Defense on matters relating to women in the services. Committee meetings were to be held at least twice a year. DACOWITS activities during the 1950's and 60's tended to concentrate on specific issues, such as housing or promotions, each year. By the early 1970's, however, DACOWITS members were asking penetrating questions on a large variety of issues. This increased activity may, in part, have been connected with the creation of an all-volunteer force in 1972, the subsequent expansion of the total number of women in the military and the opening of more military specialities to women. Whatever the cause, DACOWITS has been and still is a vital, active policy review body. It is concerned with a wide variety of issues such as physical standards for enlistment and their impact on women; military clothing and equipment and their adaptability to women; sexual harassment; equality of treatment for men and women; the impact of increasing numbers of women on military readiness; review of the legislative restrictions prohibiting women in combat; assignment of women in high technology careers; military and civilian women in policy-making positions; obstetric and gynocology care; and the role of women in the Guard and Reserves. Blacks play a significant role in the DACOWITS consideration of these issues. As of March of 1990, three of the thirty-four members of DACOWITS are black. The current DACOWITS membership includes: Dr. Lenora C. Alexander, a member of Subcommittee #2 on Career Opportunities. Among her many professional and business affiliations, Dr. Alexander was Director of Women's Bureau in the Department of Labor and associated with President Reagan's Task Force on Legal Equity for Women. She was a prior member of the District of Columbia Board of Elections and Ethics and the US Department of State Foreign Service Selection Board. Dr. Alexander is listed in Who's Who of America, Who's Who of American Women and Who's Who of the East. 146 Ms. Meredith Neizer, the DACOWITS Chair of 1990, Chair of Subcommittee #1 on Forces Utilization for 1989, and Vice Chair of Subcommittee #2, Career Opportunities for 1988. Ms. Neizer has served as Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense. She was also Academic Chair of the Black Business Students Association and business consultant for the Morris County Business Volunteers for the Arts. She is currently a member of the National Black MBA Association. Ms. Patricia Wyatt is 1990 Chair of Subcommittee #2, Career Opportunities, and was Vice Chair and Member of Subcommittee #2 for 1988 and 1989 respectively. Ms. Wyatt is currently an active member of the United Way Executive Board, the Center for Management Assistance, the Mayor's Clean City Commission, American Nurses Association and the Coalition of 100 Black Women. In addition to its civilian membership, DACOWITS has a number of military representatives assigned to the Committee, and a three person executive Secretariat staff. DACOWITS provides top quality advice to the Secretary of Defense on policy matters regarding military women. Its members, as spokespersons in their own communites, serve as vital links in obtaining public acceptance of the Armed forces as a viable career for women and have provided critical information to the Secretary of Defense and to the military services about public perceptions and attutides regarding the military. As a result of these efforts, women have become an integral part of the Armed Forces. 147 PART THREE: SO PROUDLY WE HAIL CHAPTER V IN TRIBUTE TO: The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff The First Black General in the United States Army The First Black Four Star General in Military Service Other Black Four Star Generals The First Black Female General The First Black Admiral in the United States Navy The First Black General in the Air Force The First Black General in the Marine Corps IN TRIBUTE TO: GENERAL COLIN L. POWELL, CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF Photograph of General Colin L. Powell Appointed the twelfth Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by President George Bush on October 1, 1989, General Colin L. Powell became the principal military advisor to the President, the Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council. At age 53, this Army General became the youngest Chairman ever in the history of the office, created in 1949 by an amendment to the National Security Act of 1947. He also holds claim as the first black to hold the Chairmanship, the most senior and prestigious of positions in the American military. Born on April 5, 1937, in Harlem, and raised in the South Bronx, New York, this son of Jamaican immigrants at- 149 tended City College of New York where he earned a Bachelor of Science Degree in Geology. While there, he also received a Regular Army commission through the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program from which he graduated at the top of his class. Following his 1958 graduation from CCNY, Colin Powell began active duty in the Army as an infantry second lieutenant and attended Infantry Officers Basic Training, as well as Airborne and Ranger schools at Fort Benning, Georgia. His initial assignment was to a troop unit in Germany where he was a platoon leader, executive officer, and rifle company commander. General Powell went to Vietnam in 1962 as a captain serving for a year as an advisor to a South Vietnamese infantry battalion. He subsequently returned to Vietnam as a major in 1968, serving first as an infantry battalion executive officer in the 23rd Infantry Division and then as its Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, responsible for combat operations of that unit. Returning to troop duty in 1973. he assumed command of the 1st Battalion, 32nd Infantry in Korea. He held that position for 12 months before returning to Washington, D.C. where he served in the Pentagon on the Defense Department staff for a year. General Colin Powell is sworn in as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by Defense Secretary Cheney, as Mrs. Powell holds the Bible. 150 to Washington, D.C. where he served in the Pentagon on the Defense Department staff for a year. After a year of advanced military schooling at the National War College located in Washington, D.C., General Powell went to Fort Campbell, Kentucky, as a colonel in 1976, where he commanded the 2nd Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division. Returning again to Washington in 1977, General Powell served for three years as the Senior Military Assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense. For a brief time during that period, he served as Executive Assistant to the Secretary of Energy. Promoted to brigadier general in 1981, he became the Assistant Division Commander for a year at Fort Carson. Colorado, home of the 4th Infantry Division. In that capacity, he was responsible for the full range of operations and training for that mechanized unit of some 18,000 soldiers. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney and General Colin Powell, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, conduct a briefing at the Pentagon regarding the situation in Panama on December 20, 1989. 151 After a year at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, as Deputy Commanding General of the US Army's Combined Arms Development Activity, General Powell once again returned to Washington and the Pentagon where he became the Military Assistant to Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger from 1983 to 1986. As a lieutenant general, he took command of the Army's 72,000-member Fifth U.S. Corps in Frankfurt, West Germany, in July 1986. Six months later, he was called upon by President Reagan to return to the White House to serve as deputy to the National Security Advisor, Frank Carlucci. He held that position for a year until Carlucci became Secretary of Defense at which time General Powell became the General Colin Powell talks with Marines in the Middle East. President's choice to succeed Carlucci as his National Security Advisor. As the first black to hold that position, he distinguished himself from December 1987 to January 1989 as the President's key advisor for coordinating the activities of the CIA, the State Department, the Defense Department, and other federal governmental agencies. Promoted to 4-star general in April of 1989, he returned to duty with the Army where he became head of Forces Command. From his headquarters at Fort McPherson, Georgia, he commanded 250,000 active soldiers and 300,000 reservists and National Guardsmen stationed throughout the United States and oversaw a budget of $10 billion. In the event of a national emergency and federalization of the Army National Guard, he would have been responsible for one million soldiers. With an impressive record spanning 31 years of broad military experience, General Powell was uniquely qualified to be asked by President Bush to become his top military advisor. In meeting the challenges of the most senior position in the U.S. Armed Forces, General Powell is charged with facing and dealing with the full spectrum of national security issues. Providing the nation with the strongest defense possible requires both an understanding of the strategic imperatives and the political implications of a given issue. It also calls for the sure application of various military and diplomatic skills in support of US government interests. A principal means for meeting the rigors and demands of the Chairmanship and the other key positions he has held 152 throughout his career has been his reliance on, and appreciation for, the family unit. Alma, his wife of nearly 28 years, has been the foundation stone of the Powell family, which includes son Michael and daughters Linda and Annemarie. Individually and collectively they have been his support and inspiration. For someone born during the Depression to poor, but hard working parents, Colin Luther Powell can lay claim to certain guiding principles in his life. He believes in hard work, having a strong sense of values, and being committed to working goals. He also typifies a selfless devotion to a profession he considers noble and one in which he takes great pride. His military career is impressive by its content and the unprecedented rise he has made to the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Being the nation's senior military leader is an accomplishment distinguished by its very importance and influence. President George Bush speaks with General Colin Powell, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff at the Pentagon on August 15, 1990, regarding military deployments to the Middle East Operation DESERT SHIELD. This Middle East Operation was renamed Operation DESERT STORM on January 16, 1991. 153 General Colin Powell and General Vigleik Eide, Chairman of the NATO Military Committee meet at the Pentagon on December 8, 1989. 154 IN TRIBUTE TO: GENERAL BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, SR., THIS NATION'S FIRST BLACK GENERAL IN THE MILITARY SERVICE Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. was born in Washington, DC on July 1, 1877, the same year that Lieutenant Henry O. Flipper became the first black American to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point. (In 1936, his son, Benjamin O, Davis, Jr. became only the fourth black American to graduate from the Academy). The senior Davis entered the military service on July 13, 1898, three months after the declaration of war had been approved in the Spanish-American War. During that war, he served as temporary first lieutenant in the 8th Infantry. He was mustered out of service on March 6, 1899, but on June 14, he enlisted as a private in the 9th Cavalry. He later served as squad leader and sergeant-major. On February 2, 1901, Davis was commissioned second lieutenant. His first service as a commissioned officer was with the 9th Cavalry in the Philipine Insurrection in 1901. In August of that same year, he became member of the 10th Cavalry. Returning from the Philipines with that unit, he became adjutant at Fort Washakie, Wyoming. From September 1905 through September 1909, he served as Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Wilberforce, Ohio University. After a brief tour of duty at Fort Ethan Allen, Vermont, Davis became Military Attache to Liberia, serving in Monrovia until January of 1912. He was again assigned to the 9th Cavalry, this time at Fort D. A. Russell (Now Fort Francis E. Warren), Wyoming, and later at Fort Douglas, Arizona. He remained with that unit on border patrol until February of 1915. Again he was assigned the position of Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Wilberforce University. In the summer of 1917, he returned to the Philipines and served as Supply Officer for the 9th Cavalry at Camp Stotsenberg. He returned to the United States after World War I and was assigned to the position of Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, serving there until July, 1924. When he left there, he became an instructor for the 372nd Ohio National Guard Regiment. In July of 1929, he returned to Wilberforce University in the same capacity that he had held there before. One year later, he was assigned to the Department of State in connection with affairs relating to the Republic of Liberia. In the early part of 1931, he was again assigned to Tuskegee Institute, in the same position that he had formerly held. Six years later, he was again transferred to Wilberforce University. 155 In 1938, he became the commanding officer of New York's black 396th National Guard Infantry Regiment. This unit was redesignated the 369th Coast Artillery (anti-aircraft) Artillery Regiment. At that point, he was the highest ranking black commanding officer in the Regular United States Military. Davis was commanding officer of that regiment when on October 25, 1940, he was promoted to Brigadier General, the first member of his race to be appointed to general grade officer in the history of the Regular United States Army. In January of 1941, he was ordered to Fort Riley, Kansas for duty as a brigade commander with the 2nd Cavalry Division. In June of 1942, he was assigned to Washington to serve as Assistant to the Inspector General. General Davis was assigned to the European Theater of Operations as special deputy and advisor on Negro problems. Some months later, he returned to the United States and resumed his duties in the Inspector General's Office. He returned to Europe in 1944, going to Paris where he served as Special Assistant to the Commanding General, Communications Zone, European Theater of Operations. Shortly after World War II ended, General Davis was granted detached service for recuperation and rehabilitation. In January of 1946, he became Assistant to the Inspector General in Washington. The promotional record of General Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. is a continuous series of temporary and permanent rank assignments through the years. His courage and determination helped him to withstand the ordeal of uncertainty that prevaded his military career. The country's top military brass was kept busy pondering what to do with, first the black military career officer and, second, the nation's only black general. His promotional record shows that: (1) He was promoted to first lieutenant on March 30, 1905; (2) He was promoted to captain on December 24, 1915; (3) He was promoted to major (temporary) on August 5, 1917; (4) He was promoted to lieutenant colonel (temporary) on May 1, 1918; (5) He reverted to captain on Oc- General Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. 156 General Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. discusses the treatment of white American soldiers by black medical personnel in England. tober 14, 1919; (6) He was (again) promoted to lieutenant colonel on July 1, 1920; (7) He was promoted to colonel on February 18, 1930; (8) He was promoted to brigadier general on October 25, 1940; (9) He was retired on July 31, 1941; (10) He was recalled into service with the rank of brigadier general on August 1, 1941. His decorations from the United States Government include the Distinguished Service Medal and the Bronze Star. He received the Croix de Guerre from France and the Star of Africa from Liberia. General Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. is deceased. General Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. pins the Distinguished Flying Cross on his son, (then) Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. in Italy on May 29, 1944. 157 IN TRIBUTE TO: GENERAL DANIEL "CHAPPIE" JAMES, THIS NATION'S FIRST BLACK FOUR STAR GENERAL Daniel "Chappie" James was born on February 11, 1920, in Pensacola, Florida. From September 1937 to March 1942, he attended Tuskegee Institute, where he received a degree in physical education and completed his civilian pilot training under the government sponsored Civilian Pilot Training Program. He remained at Tuskegee as a civilian instructor pilot in the Army Air Corps Aviation Cadet Program until January 1943, when he entered the program as a cadet and received his commission as a second lieutenant in July 1943. In September 1949, James went to Clark Field, Philippines, and in July 1950 he left for Korea, where he flew 101 combat missions in P-51 and F-80 aircraft. In July 1951, James was assigned to Otis Air Force Base, Massachusetts, as an all-weather jet fighter pilot. He received the Massachusetts Junior Chamber of Commerce 1954 award of "Young Man of the Year" for his outstanding community relations efforts, while stationed at Otis, From 1957 until 1966, James attended the Air Command and Staff College and was stationed at Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Pentagon, the Royal Air Force Station at Bentwaters, England, and Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. James was assigned to Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, in December 1966. He flew 78 combat missions into North Vietnam, many in the Hanoi/Haiphong area, and led a flight in which seven communist MIG 21s were destroyed, the highest total kill of any mission during the Vietnam conflict. He was named Vice Commander at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, in December 1967. While stationed at Eglin, the Florida State Jaycees named Daniel James as Florida's Outstanding American of the Year for 1969, and he received the Jaycee Distinguished Service Award. He was transferred to Wheelus Air Base in the Libyan Arab Republic in August 1969. General James became Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Public Affairs) in March 1970 and assumed duty as Vice Commander of the Military Airlift Command on September 1, 1974. General James was promoted to four-star grade and assigned as Commander in Chief NORAD/ADCOM, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado, on September 1, 1975. In these dual capacities, he had operational command of all United States and Canadian strategic aerospace defense forces. General James retired from the Air Force on February 1, 1978. 159 General James was widely known for his speeches on Americanism and patriotism for which he was editorialized in numerous national and international publications. Excerpts from some of the speeches have been read into the Congressional Record. He was awarded the George Washington Freedom Foundation Medal in 1967 and again in 1968. He received the Arnold Air Society Eugene M. Zuckert Award in 1970 for outstanding contributions to Air Force professionalism. His citation read "... fighter pilot with a magnificent record, public speaker, and eloquent spokesman for the American Dream we so rarely achieve." General James died on February 25, 1978. Photograph of General Daniel "Chappie" James. 160 Illustrations of General James and numerous aircraft o Graduated number 1 in his Army Air Corps cadet training and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant. o Attended Fighter Pilot Combat Training at Selfridge Field, Michigan. "Prove to the world that you can compete on an equal basis." "I have a deep and abiding belief in my country and her security." o After the Korean War, he served as a Jet fighter and fighter interceptor pilot and squadron commander 161 IN TRIBUTE TO: GENERAL ROSCOE ROBINSON, JR., THIS NATION'S FIRST BLACK FOUR STAR GENERAL IN THE ARMY Roscoe Robinson, Jr. was born on October 28,1928 in St. Louis, Missouri, where he received his elementary and secondary education. After graduation from Charles Sumner High School, he was appointed to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York. He graduated in 1951 with a bachelor of science degree in military engineering and was commissioned a second lieutenant. After graduation, Robinson attended the Associate Infantry Officer Course and the Basic Airborne Course at Fort Benning, Georgia. He then joined the 11th Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, where he served as a platoon leader in the 188th Airborne Infantry Regiment until he went to Korea in October 1952. In Korea, Robinson served in the 31st Infantry Regiment, 7th Infantry Division as a rifle company commander and Battalion S-2. He was awarded the Bronze Star for his service in Korea. Upon returning to the United States, he served in a variety of school and airborne unit assignments highlighted by a tour with the U.S. Military Mission to Liberia in the late 1950's and the receipt of a master's degree in international affairs from the University of Pittsburgh in the early 1960's. As a Lieutenant Colonel, he served in Vietnam, first on the staff of the 1st Air Cavalry Division, then as the first black to command the 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry. For his Vietnam service, he was decorated with the Silver Star for valor. Photograph of General Roscoe Robinson, Jr. 163 Upon completion of the National War College in 1969, he served in Hawaii until his promotion to Colonel when he assumed command of the 2d Brigade, 82d Airborne Division in 1972. Since that time, he has, among other assignments, served as the Commanding General, U.S. Army Garrison, Okinawa; Commanding General, 82d Airborne Division; and Commanding General, United States Army, Japan/IX Corps. In August 1982 he became the first black to become a four-star general in the Army and the second black to achieve that rank in the Armed Forces (the first being General Daniel "Chappie" James). He served as the United States Representative to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Military Committee. In his over 31 years of active duty service, General Robinson has been awarded the Silver Star (with Oak Leaf Cluster), the Legion of Merit (with two Oak Leaf Clusters), the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Bronze Star Medal, ten Air medals, the Army Commendation Medal, the Combat Infantryman Badge (2d Award), and the Master Parachutist Badge. General Robinson is retired. 164 IN TRIBUTE TO: GENERAL BERNARD R. RANDOLPH, THE SECOND BLACK FOUR STAR GENERAL IN THE AIR FORCE Bernard P. Randolph was born in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1934. His military career began as a member of a Strategic Air Command crew in 1955. In 1965, he became chief of on-orbit operations of the Space Systems Division in Los Angeles. In 1969 Randolph was sent to Vietnam where he assumed responsibility for the coordination of around-the-clock Tactical Airlift Operations throughout the combat zone in Southeast Asia. In 1970, he returned to the United States and served for the next ten years mostly with the Space and Missile Systems organizations in the Los Angeles area. General Randolph directed the billion dollar Air Force satellite communications system. At the time of his retirement from active military service in April of 1990, General Randolph was in control of a staff of 53,000 people, mostly scientists and engineers in the Air Force Research and Development program. He controlled a $30 billion annual budget and managed 48,000 active on-going contracts with a value of $305 million. Programs conducted under General Randolph's command include the B-2 advanced technology bomber, the advanced tactical fighter, the National Aerospace plane, and advanced satellite program. General Randolph holds master degrees in electrical engineering and business administration. Photograph of General Bernard P. Randolph 165 IN TRIBUTE TO: BRIGADIER GENERAL HAZEL WINIFRED JOHNSON, THIS NATION'S FIRST BLACK FEMALE GENERAL In September of 1979, Hazel Winifred Johnson became the first black woman to attain the rank of a general officer. Hazel Winifred Johnson was born in Pennsylvania and raised on her parent's farm near Malvern in Chester County. She attended high school in Berwyn, Pennsylvania and received her BA in nursing from Villanova University. She holds holds a Masters degree in Nursing Education from Columbia University and a Doctorate in Educational Administration from Catholic University. She entered the Army Nurse Corps in 1955 and served in numerous hospitals overseas and in this country, including an assignment as Chief of the Army Nurse Corps. General Johnson has been awarded the Legion of Merit, Meritorious Service Medal, Army Commendation Medal with Oak Leaf Cluster, and has been recognized for her achievements in nursing by several military, professional and civic organizations. Photograph of General Hazel Winifred Johnson 167 IN TRIBUTE TO: VICE ADMIRAL SAMUEL L. GRAVELY JR., THE FIRST BLACK ADMIRAL IN THE UNITED STATES NAVY Born in Richmond, Virginia, Vice Admiral Gravely enlisted in the U. S. Naval Reserve in 1941 and was commissioned Ensign. As a Junior Officer, he enjoyed a variety of assignments including duty at the Recruit Training Command, the Fleet Training Center, Norfolk, Virginia and Naval Officer Procurement, Washington, DC. He served aboard the USS IOWA, the USS TOLEDO and the USS SEMINOLE. Gravely attended the Navy Postgraduate School in Montercy, California, and the Naval War College. He was promoted to Commander in 1962 and Captain in 1967. In 1971, Samuel Gravely was designated as the first black Rear Admiral in the history of the U.S. Navy. Vice Admiral Gravely went on to hold a number of distinguished command positions in his thirty-eight year career, among which he served as commander, Naval Communications Command; Command Cruiser, Destroyer Group Two; and Commandant, Eleventh Naval District. Upon his retirement in 1980, he was Director, Defense Communications Agency in Washington, DC. Vice Admiral Gravely was decorated with the following medals and awards from outstanding service: Legion of Merit; Bronze Star Medal; Meritorious Service Medal; Navy Commendation Medal with Combat "V" with one gold star with Combat "V"; China Service Medal, American Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; National Defense Medal with one bronze star; Korean Service Medal; Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (Quemoy and Matsu); Vietnam Service Medal with four bronze stars; Naval Reserve Medal; Korean Presidental Unit Citation; Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation, United Nations Service Medal; Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal with Device (1960-1973); Distinguished Service Medal. He was also awarded the Order Al Merito Naval, Second Class, by the Republic of Venezuela. Photograph of Vice Admiral Samuel L. Gravely, Jr. 169 IN TRIBUTE TO: GENERAL BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, JR., THIS NATION'S FIRST BLACK GENERAL IN THE U.S. AIR FORCE. It was not until 1954 that a second black was promoted to Brigadier General in the United States Military Service. Ironically, the first and the second were father and son, both with the same name. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr, became the second black general officer in the regular forces, and the first black service academy graduate to achieve that position. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. was born in Washington, D.C. on December 18, 1912. He graduated from Central High School in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1929, attended Western Reserve University and later the University of Chicago. He graduated from the U S. Military Academy in 1936. He entered Advanced Flying School at Tuskegee Army Air Base and received his pilot wings in March 1942. Davis transferred to the Army Air Corps in May 1942, and became Commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron at Tuskegee Army Air Base. His unit was sent to North Africa in April 1943. He returned to the United States in October 1943, and assumed command of the 332nd Fighter Group at Selfridge Field, Michigan. General Davis returned with the group to Italy two months later. When World War II ended, he returned to the United States in June 1945 to command the 477th Composite Group at Godman Field, Kentucky. In March 1946 he went to Lockbourne Army Air Base, Ohio, as Commander of the base and in July 1947 became Commander of the 332d Fighter Wing there. In 1949 General Davis went to the Air War College, Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala. After graduation, he was assigned to the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations, Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C. In November 1953 he assumed duties as Commander of the 51st Fighter Interceptor Wing, Far East Air Forces
Photograph of General Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. 171 (FEAF), Korea. He served as Director of Operations and Training at FEAF Headquarters, Tokyo, from 1954 until 1955, when he assumed the position of Vice Commander, Thirteenth Air Force with additional duty as Commander, Air Task Force 13 (Provisional), Taipei, Formosa. General Davis arrived at Ramstein, Germany in April 1957, and served as Chief of Staff, Twelfth Air Force, United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE). In December 1957, he assumed new duties as Deputy Chief of Staff of Operations, Headquarters USAFE, Weisbaden, Germany. Returning to the Pentagon in July 1961, he served as the Director of Manpower and Organization, Deputy Chief of Staff for Programs and Requirements. He remained in that position until his assignments as Chief of Staff for the United Nations Command and US Forces in Korea in April 1965. He assumed Command of the Thirteenth Air Force at Clark Air Base in the Republic of the Philipines in August 1967. General Davis was assigned as Deputy Commander in Chief, US Strike Command at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida, in August of 1968, with additional duty as Commander in Chief, Middle East, Southern Asia and Africa. He retired from active duty in February 1970. 172 IN TRIBUTE TO: GENERAL FRANK E. PETERSEN, THIS NATION'S FIRST BLACK GENERAL IN THE MARINE CORPS
Photograph of General Frank E. Petersen Frank E. Petersen was born in Topeka, Kansas, on March 2, 1932. In June of 1950, he joined the United States Navy as an apprentice seaman, serving as an electronic technician. He entered the Naval Aviation Cadet Program in 1951, and completed his flight training in October of 1952 at which time he accepted a commission as Second Lieutenant in the Marine Corps. He had considerable flight activity in Korea, where he served as the Commander of a Marine fighter squadron, a Marine aircraft group, a Marine amphibious brigade, and a Marine aircraft wing. During his two tours of duty, Korea and Vietnam, Petersen flew 350 combat missions, with over 4000 hours in various fighter/attack aircraft. When he retired from the Marine Corps on August 1, 1988, he was serving as the Commanding General of the Marine Corps Development and Educational at Quantico, Virginia. When he left the service, he was the senior ranking aviator in the United States Marine Corps and the United States Navy, with respective titles of "Silver Hawk" and "Grey Eagle." In this regard, the date of his designation as an aviator preceded all other aviators in the United States Air Force and the United States Army. With respect to General Petersen's education, he earned both a bachelor's degree and a master's degree from George Washington University in Washington, DC. Virginia Union University awarded him an honorary doctor of law degree. He attended many service schools. His numerous decorations include: the Defense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit with Combat "V"; Distin- 173 guished Flying Cross; Purple Heart; Meritorious Service Medal; Air Medal; Navy Commendation Medal with Combat "V"; and the Air Force Commendation Medal. 174 CHAPTER VI IN RECOGNITION OF: Black Generals in the United States Army Black Flag Officers & Generals in the Navy and Marine Corps Black Generals in the Air Force Black Generals in the Army and Air National Guards Black Generals in the National Guard Retired Reserve BLACK GENERALS OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY Active Duty Gen. Colin L. Powell Lt. Gen. Marvin D. Brailsford Lt. Gen. James R. Hall, Jr. Lt. Gen. James F. McCall Lt. Gen. Alonzo P. Short, Jr. Lt. Gen. Calvin A. H. Waller Maj. Gen. Wallace C. Arnold Maj. Gen. Fred A. Gorden Maj. Gen. Charles A. Hines 175 Active Duty - Generals - United States Army Maj. Gen. John H. Stanford Maj. Gen. Matthew A. Zimmerman Brig. Gen. Clara L. Adams-Ender Brig. Gen. Melvin L. Byrd Brig. Gen. John S. Cowings Brig. Gen.(P) Samuel E. Ebbesen Brig. Gen. Robert E. Gray Brig. Gen. Ernest J. Harrell Brig. Gen. Julius F. Johnson 176 Active Duty - Generals - United States Army Brig. Gen. Frederic H. Leigh Brig. Gen. Alphonso E. Lenhardt Brig Gen. James W. Monroe Brig Gen. Donald L. Scott Brig. Gen. Frank. L. Miller, Jr. Brig. Gen. Jude W. Patin Brig. Gen. Thomas L. Prather Brig. Gen. Robert L. Stephen., Jr. Brig. Gen. Johnnie E. Wilson 177 Active Duty - Generals - United States Army Brig. Gen. John M. Watkins, Jr. Col. (P) Harold E. Burch Col. (P) Joe N. Ballard Col. (P) Kenneth D. Gray Col. (P) Larry R. Jordan 178 BLACK GENERALS OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY Retired Gen. Roscoe Robinson, Jr. Lt. Gen. Julius W. Becton Lt. Gen. Andrew P. Chambers, Jr. Lt. Gen. Henry Doctor, Jr. Lt. Gen. Arthur J. Gregg Lt. Gen. Edward Honor Lt. Gen. Emmett Paige, Jr. Maj. Gen. Robert B. Adams Maj. Gen. Harry W. Brooks 179 Retired - United States Army Maj. Gen. John M. Brown Maj. Gen. Charles D. Bussey Maj. Gen. Eugene P. Cromartie Maj. Gen. Jerry R. Curry Maj. Gen. Frederic E. Davison Maj. Gen. Oliver W. Dillard Maj. Gen. Robert C. Gaskill Maj. Gen. Edward Greer Maj. Gen. James F. Hamlet 180 Retired - United States Army Maj. Gen. Arthur Holmes, Jr. Maj. Gen. Charles E. Honore Maj. Gen. James R. Klugh Maj. Gen. Julius Parker, Jr. Maj. Gen. Hugh O. Robinson Maj. Gen. Jackson E. Rozier Maj. Gen. Fred O. Sheffey, Jr. Maj. Gen. Issac D. Smith Maj. Gen. Harvey D. Williams 181 Retired - United States Army Maj. Gen. Charles E. Williams Brig. Gen. Leo A. Brooks Brig. Gen. Dallas C. Brown, Jr. Brig. Gen. Alfred J. Cade Brig. Gen. Sherian G. Cadoria Brig Gen. Donald J. Delandro Brig. Gen. Johnnie Forte, Jr. Brig. Gen. Robert A. Harleston Brig. Gen. Hazel W. Johnson 182 Retired - United States Army Brig. Gen. Walter F. Johnson, III Brig. Gen. George B. Price Brig. Gen George M. Shuffer, Jr. Brig. Gen. Guthrie L. Turner, Jr. Deceased-United States Army Brig. Gen. Roscoe C. Cartwright Brig. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. Maj. Gen. Charles C. Rogers 183 BLACK FLAG OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY Active Duty Rear Admiral Walter Jackson Davis, Jr. Rear Admiral Joseph Paul Reason Rear Admiral Mack Charles Gaston 185 BLACK FLAG OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY Retired Vice Admiral Samuel L. Gravely, Jr. Rear Admiral Lawrence C. Chambers Rear Admiral Benjamin T. Hacker Rear Admiral Gerald E. Thomas Rear Admiral L. A. Williams Rear Admiral Wendell Johnson Rear Admiral William E. Powell Rear Admiral Robert Lee Tony 186 BLACK GENERALS OF THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE Active Duty Maj. Gen. Albert Edmonds Maj. Gen John H. Voorhees Brig. Gen Marcelite Jorden-Harris Brig. Gen Lester L. Lyles Brig. Gen. John F. Phillips 187 BLACK GENERALS OF THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE Retired Gen. Bernard P. Randolph Lt. Gen. William E. Brown, Jr. Lt. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. Lt. Gen. Winston D. Powers Maj. Gen. Rufus L. Billups Maj. Gen. Thomas E. Clifford Maj. Gen. Titus C. Hall Maj. Gen. Archer L. Durham Maj. Gen. Lucius Theus 188 Retired Generals United States Air Force Brig. Gen. James T. Boddie, Jr. Brig. Gen. Elmer Brooks Brig. Gen. Alonzo L. Ferguson Brig. Gen. David M. Hall Brig. Gen. Avon C. James Brig. Gen. Charles B. Jiggets Brig. Gen. Raymond V. McMillan Brig. Gen. Norris W. Overton Brig. Gen. Horace L. Russell 189 BLACK GENERALS OF THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE Deceased Gen. Daniel "Chappie" James 190 BLACK GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Active Duty Brig. Gen. (S) George H. Wall., Jr. Retired Lt. Gen. Frank E. Petersen, Jr. Reserve Maj. Gen. J. Gary Cooper 191 BLACK GENERALS OF THE ARMY AND AIR FORCE RESERVES Active Duty and Retired Maj. Gen. Roger R. Blunt, USAR Brig. Gen. Albert Bryant, USAR (Retired) Maj. Gen. John Q. T. King, USAR (Retired) Brig. Gen. Vance Coleman, USAR Brig. Gen. Talmage Jacobs, USAR (Retired) Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lacey Hunton, USAR (Deceased) Brig. Gen. Marion Mann, USAR (Retired) Brig. Gen. William R. Banton, USAFR (Retired) 192 BLACK GENERALS OF THE ARMY AND AIR NATIONAL GUARDS Active Duty Maj. Gen. Richard C. Alexander, Army National Guard - Ohio Maj. Gen. Russell C. Davis, Air National Guard - D.C. Maj. Gen. Calvin G. Franklin, Army National Guard - DC Maj. Gen. Robert L. Moorehead, Army National Guard - V.I. Brig. Gen. Johnny J. Hobbs, Air National Guard - D.C. Brig. Gen. James T. Whitehead, Jr., Air National Guard - Pennsylvania Brig. Gen. Nathaniel James, Army National Guard - New York 193 Generals - Army National Guard Retired Maj. Gen. Cunningham C. Bryant, Army National Guard - DC Brig. Gen. Cornelius O. Baker, Army National Guard - Penn. Brig. Gen. Leroy C. Bell, Army National Guard - DC Brig. Gen. Carl E. Brisco, Army National Guard - NJ Brig. Gen. George M. Brooks, Army National Guard Brig. Gen. Alonzo Dougherty, Army National Guard - Kansas Brig. Gen. Louis Duckett, Army National Guard - NY Brig. Gen. William S. Frye, Army National Guard - NJ Brig. Gen. Ernest R. Morgan, Army National Guard - VI Brig. Gen. Richard Saxton, Army National Guard Brig. Gen. Nathaniel Smith, Army National Guard 194 Generals - Army National Guard Retired Brig. Gen. Edward O. Gourdon, Massachusetts Army National Guard Brig. Gen. Cauncey M. Hooper, New York Army National Guard Brig. Gen. Richard L. Jones, Illinois Army National Guard Brig. Gen. Raymond Watkins, Illinois, Army National Guard 195 CHAPTER VII IN COMMEMORATION OF BLACK RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR
The contemporary Medal of Honor The Medal of Honor, sometimes erroneously referred to as the "Congressional Medal of Honor," is presented in the name of Congress to members of the American armed forces who perform acts of valor considered "beyond the call of duty." Beyond the call of duty generally means that the individual who performs such act would not have been ordered to do so. It also means that this voluntary action places such person's life at risk during an outstanding act of bravery. It frequently involves risking his/her life to save the life or lives of a comrade or comrades. Initially there was only the Navy Medal of Honor. This was followed shortly by the Army Medal of Honor. The Navy Medal of Honor was also awarded to members of the Marine Corps, and the Army Medal of Honor was also awarded to individuals of the Air Corps. Following World War II, however, the Air Corps became the United States Air Force, an independent military branch. A separate Medal of Honor was struck for this branch of service. There are currently three Medals of Honor. No black American has received the Air Force Medal of Honor. Only one female (Dr. Mary Walker of the Civil War) has been awarded the Medal. The youngest recipient of the Medal of Honor was 14 years old. BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR THE CIVIL WAR ARMY BARNES, WILLIAM H., Private, Company C, 38th United States Colored Troops, for action at Mattox Creek on March 17, 1865 BEATY, POWHATTAN, First Sergeant, Company G, 5th United States Colored Troops for action at Chapins Farm, Virginia on September 29, 1864 BRONSON, JAMES H., First Sergeant, Company D, 5th United States Colored Troops, for action at Chapins Farm, Virginia on September 29, 1864 CARNEY, WILLIAM H., Sergeant, Company C, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, United States Colored Troops, for action at Fort Wagner, South Carolina on July 18, 1963 DORSEY, DECATUR, Sergeant, Company B, 39th United States Colored Troops, for action at Petersburg, Virginia on July 30, 1864 FLEETWOOD, CHRISTIAN A., Sergeant Major 4th United States Colored Troop, for action at Chapins Farm, Virginia on September 29, 1864 197 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR THE CIVIL WAR ARMY GARDINER, JAMES, Private, Company I, 36th United States Colored Troops, for action at Chapins Farm on September 29, 1864 HARRIS, JAMES H., Sergeant, Company B, 38th United States States Colored Troops, for action at Chapins Farm on September 29, 1864 HAWKINS, THOMAS R. Sergeant Major, 6th United States Colored Troops, for action at Deep Bottom, Virgnia on July 21, 1864 HILTON, ALFRED B., Sergeant, Company H, 4th United States Colored Troops, for action at Chapins Farm, Virginia on Sept. 29, 1864 HOLLAND, MILTON, M., Sergeant, 5th United States Colored Troops, for action at Chapins Farm on Sept. 29, 1864 KELLY, ALEXANDER, First Sergeant, Company F, 6th United States Colored Troops, at Chapins Farm on Sept. 29, 1864 198 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR THE CIVIL WAR NAVY ANDERSON, AARON, Landsman, USS WYANDANK, for action at Mattox Creek on March 17, 1865 BLAKE, ROBERT, Powder Boy on USS MARBLEHEAD, for action at Stone River on December 25, 1863 BROWN, WILLIAM H., USS BROOKLYN, for action at Mobile Bay on August 5, 1864 BROWN, WILSON, USS HARTFORD, for action at Mobile Bay on August 5, 1864 LAWSON, JOHN, USS Hartford, for action at Mobile Bay on August 5, 1864 199 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR THE INTERIM PERIOD (After Civil War) NAVY DAVIS, JOHN, Ordinary Seaman: USS TRENTON, for action at Toulon, France in February of 1881 GIRANDY, ALPHONSE, Seaman: USS TETREL, for action on board ship on March 31, 1901 JOHNSON, JOHN, Seaman: USS KANSAS, for action near Greytown, Nicarauga on April 12, 1872 JOHNSON, WILLIAM, Cooper: USS ADAMS, for action at Mare Island, California on Nov. 14, 1879 NOlL, JOSEPH B., Seaman: USS POWHATTAN, for action at Norfolk, Virginia on December 26, 1872 SMITH, JOHN, Seaman: USS SHENANDOAH, for action at Rio De Janiero, Brazil on September 19, 1880 200 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR THE INTERIM PERIOD (After Civil War) NAVY SWEENEY, ROBERT (Credited to New Jersey) Ordinary Seaman: First Award- for action aboard USS KEARSAGE at Hampton Roads, Virginia on October 26, 1881 Second Award- for action aboard the USS JAMESTOWN on December 20, 1883 201 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR ARMY (The Indian Campaigns in the West) BOYNE, THOMAS, Sergeant, Troop C, 9th United States Cavalry, for action at Chichillo Negro River, New Mexico on September 27, 1879 BROWN, BENJAMIN, Sergeant, Company C, 24th United States Infantry, for action at Cedar Springs and Fort Thomas, Arizona on May 11, 1889 DENNY, JOHN, Sergeant, Troop C, 9th United States Cavalry, for action at Las Animas Canyon, New Mexico on September 18, 1879. FACTOR, POMPEY, Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, for action at Pecos River, Texas on April 25, 1875 GREAVES, CLINTON, Corporal, Troop C, 9th United States Cavalry, for action at Florida Mountains, New Mexico on June 26, 1879 JOHNSON, HENRY, Sergeant, Troop D, 9th United States Cavalry, for action at Milk River, Colorado on October 2-5, 202 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR ARMY (The Indian Campaigns in the West) JORDAN, GEORGE, Sergeant, Troop K, 9th United States Cavalry, for action at Carizzo Canyon, New Mexico on May 7, 1890 McBREYER, WILLIAM, Sergeant, Troop K, 10th United States Cavalry, for action at Elizabethtown, North Carolina on March 7, 1889 MAYS, ISIAH, Corporal, Company B, 24th United States Infantry, for action at Cedar Springs and Fort Thomas, Arizona on May 11, 1889 PAINE, ADAM, Private, Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, for action at Canyon Blanco, Statked Plains, Texas on September 26-27, 1874 203 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR ARMY (The Indian Campaigns in the West) WALLY, AUGUST, Private, Troop I, 9th United States Cavalry, for action at Chichillo Negro Mountains, New Mexico on August 16, 1881 WARD, JOHN, Sergeant, Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, for action at Pecos River, Texas on August 16, 1881 WILLIAMS, MOSES, First Sergeant, Troop I, 9th United States Cavalry, for action at Chichillo Negro Mountains, New Mexico on August 16, 1881 WILSON, WILLIAM O., Corporal, Troop I, 9th United States Calvary, for action during the Sioux Campaign in 1890 WOODS, BRENT, Sergeant, Troop B, 9th United States Cavalry, for action near McEvers Ranch, New Mexico on August 19, 1881 204 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR ARMY BAKER, EDWARD L., JR. Sergeant Major, 10th United States Cavalry, for action at Santiago, Cuba on July 1, 1898 BELL, DENNIS, Private, Troop H, 10th United States Cavalry, for action at Tayabacoa, Cuba on June 30, 1898 LEE, FITZ, Private, Troop M, 10th United States Cavalry, for action at Tayabacoa, Cuba on June 30, 1898 THOMPKINS, WILLIAM H., Private, Troop G, 10th United States Cavalry, for action at Tayabacoa, Cuba on June 30, 1898 WANTON, GEORGE H. Sergeant, Troop M, 10th United States Cavalry, for action at Tayabacoa, Cuba on June 30, 1898 NAVY PENN, ROBERT, Fireman, First Class, USS IOWA, for action off Santiago, Cuba on July 20, 1898 205 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR THE INTERIM PERIOD (After Civil War) MEDAL OF HONOR TO BE AWARDED POSTHUMOUSLY TO WORLD WAR I SOLDIER The Department of the Army announced today the President of the United States has approved the posthumous award of the Medal of Honor to Corporal Freddie Stowers, a United States Army veteran of World War I. Stowers, a native of Anderson County, South Carolina, displayed exceptional heroism on September 28, 1918, while serving as a squad leader in Company C, 371st Infantry Regiment, 93rd Infantry Division. His company was the lead company during an attack on Hill 188 in the Champagne Marne Sector, France, during the First World War. Faced with enemy deception that devastated the unit, Corporal Stowers took charge, setting such a courageous example of personal bravery and leadership that he inspired his men to follow him into the fray. With complete disregard of personal danger under devastating fire, he crawled forward, leading his squad toward an enemy machine gun nest which was inflicting heavy casualties on his company. After fierce fighting, the machine gun position was destroyed. Continuing his crawl forward and urging his men to continue the attack on a second trench line, he was gravely wounded by machine gun fire. Stowers still pressed forward, urging on the members of his squad, until he died. Inspired by Stowers' selfless heroism and bravery, Company C continued its attack against incredible odds, contributing to the capture of Hill 188 and causing heavy enemy casualties. Stowers' unit was organized on 31 August, 1917, at Camp Jackson, South Carolina as the 1st Provisional Infantry Regiment, redesignated in October of that year as the 371st Infantry and attached to the 93rd Division (Provisional). The regiment deployed to France the following April. In France, the 371st was reorganized under French tables of organization and equipment, and fought with French units. It served in the Lorraine and Alsace sectors, and took part in the Meuse-Argonne campaign. The regiment was awarded the French Croix de Guerre with Palm for its service in World War I. The citation for the award characterized the regiment as having a "superb spirit and admirable disregard for danger". In February 1919, the 371st returned to the United States and was demobilized at Camp Jackson. Stowers is the only black American to receive the Medal of Honor for actions during World War I. In 1988, the Secretary of the Army directed that the Army conduct research to determine whether there had been any barriers to black soldiers in the Medal of Honor recognition process. The Army conducted extensive research during 1988 and 1989 at the National Archives and determined that Stowers was recommended for the Medal of Honor but, for reasons unknown, his recommendation was never processed. Once the Army learned that a legitimate recommendation for the Medal of Honor had not been properly processed in accordance with public law, it conducted a thorough review of Stowers' action in France during World War I to ensure it met Medal of Honor standards. The Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of the Army, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Secretary of Defense thoroughly reviewed the case file and recommended to the President that the Medal of Honor be awarded to Stowers. The Medal of Honor will be awarded to Stowers' surviving sisters during ceremonies at the White House on April 24, 1991. WORLD WAR II No black American military person received either the Army or Navy Medal of Honor for this war. Defense Secretary Frank Carlucci initiated a review of the records of decorated black servicemen during this war in an effort to determine if racial discrimination was a factor of denial so far as black Americans receiving this medal. Defense Secretary Cheney has had the research and review continued. 206 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR KOREAN CONFLICT ARMY CHARLTON, CORNELIUS H. Sergeant, 24th infantry Regiment, 25th Division, for action near Chipo-Ri, Korea on June 2, 1951 THOMPSON, WILLIAM, Private, 24th Infantry Regiment, 25th Division, for action near Haman, Korea on August 6, 1950 207 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR VIETNAM CONFLICT U. S. ARMY ANDERSON, WEBSTER, Sergeant, Battery A, 2d Battalion, 320th Artillery, 101st Airborne Division, for action at Tam Ky, Republic of Vietnam on October 15, 1967 BRYANT, WILLIAM MAUD, Sergeant First Class, Company A, 5th Special Forces Group, 1st Special Forces, for action at Long Khanh Province, Republic of Vietnam on March 24, 1969 JOHNSON, DWIGHT H., Specialist 5th Class, Company B, 1st Battalion, 69th Armor, 4th Infantry Division, for action at Dak To Kontum Province, Republic of Vietnam on January 15, 1968 ASHLEY, EUGENE, JR., Sergeant, Company C., 5th Special Forces Group (Airborne), 1st Special Forces, for action Lang Vei, Republic of Vietnam on February T, 1968 JOEL, LAWRENCE, Specialist Sixth Class, Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1st Battalion, 173d Airborne Brigade, for action in Vietnam on November 8, 1965 LANGHORN, GARFIELD M., Private First Class, Troop C, 7th Squadron, 17th Cavalry, 1st Aviation Brigade, for action at Pleiku Province, Republic of Vietnam on January 15, 1969 208 VIETNAM CONFLICT U. S. ARMY LEONARD, MATTHEW, Platoon Sergeant, Company B, 1st Battalion, 16th Infantry, 1st Infantry Division, for action at Suoi Da, Republic of Vietnam on February 28, 1967 OLIVE, MILTON L., III, Private First Class, Company B, 2d Battalion 503d Infantry, 173d Airborne Brigade, for action at Phu Cuong, Republic of Vietnam on October 22, 1965 ROGERS, CHARLES C., Lieutenant Colonel, 1st Battalion, 5th Infantry, 1st Infantry Division, for action at Fishhook, Republic of Vietnam on November 1, 1968. LONG, DONALD RUSSELL, Sergeant, Troop C, 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry, 1st Infantry Division, for action in the Republic of Vietnam on June 30, 1966 PITTS, RILEY L., Captain, Company C, 2d Battalion, 27th Infantry, 25th Infantry Division, for action at Ap Dong, Republic of Vietnam on October 31, 1967 SARGEANT, RUPERT L., First Lieutenant, Company B, 4th Battalion, 9th Infantry, 25th Infantry Division, for action at Hau Nghia Province, Republic of Vietnam on March 15, 1967 209 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR VIETNAM CONFLICT U. S.ARMY SASSER, CLARENCE E., Specialist 5th Class, Headquarters Company, 3d Battalion, 60th Infantry, 90th Infantry Division, for action at DING Tuong Province on January 10, 1968 WARREN, JOHN E., JR., First Lieutenant, Company C, 2d Battalion, 22d Infantry, 25th Infantry Division, for action at Tay Ninh Province, Republic of Vietnam on January 14, 1969 SIMS, CLIFFORD CHESTER, Staff Sergeant, Company D, 2nd Battalion, 501st Infantry, 10 1st Airborne Division, for action at Hue, Republic of Vietnam on February 21, 1968 210 BLACK AMERICAN RECIPIENT OF THE MEDALS OF HONOR U. S. MARINES ANDERSON, JAMES A., Private First Class, 2d Platoon, Company F., 2d Battalion, 3d Marine Division, for action at Cam Lo, Vietnam on February 28, 1967 Davis, RODNEY M., Sergeant, Company B, 1st Battalion, 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division, for action at Quang Na Province, Republic of Vietnam on September 6, 1967 JOHNSON, RALPH H., Private First Class, Company A, 1st Recon Battalion, 1st Marine Division, for action at Quan Duc Valley, Republic of Vietnam on March 5, 1968 AUSTlN, OSCAR P., Private First Class, Company E, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division, for action at Da Nang, Republic of Vietnam on February 23, 1969 JENKINS, ROBERT H., JR., Private First Class, 3d Reconnaissance Battalion, 3d Marine Division, for action at Base Argonne on March 5, 1969 211 CHAPTER VIII IN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF CURRENT BLACK MILITARY ROLE MODELS BLACK MILITARY ROLE MODELS U. S. ARMY: COLONELS COL JOE NATHAN BALLARD Brigade Commander EN HHC Theater A, Karlsruhe, GE COL BOYD C. BRYANT Discom Commander AB DIV HH/MMC S, Ft. Bragg, NC COL HAROLD EUGENE BURCH Discom Commander HHC DISCOM 1CD, Ft. Hood, TX COL ARTHUR TRUMAN DEAN Group Commander USA Postal GRP E, Rheinau, GE COL MATTHEW DEVORE Principal DIR DASD MMP Pentagon, DC COL LARRY RUDEL ELLIS Brigade Commander HHC 1St BDE 3D INF Schweinft GE COL ARTHUR JAMES GIPSON Commander USASSC HQS TRP BDE Ft. Benjamin Harrison, GA COL TERRY ANTHONY GORDON Community Commander USAMIL COM ACT Neu Ulm, GE COL MILTON HUNTER Commander ENDIST SEATTLE Seattle, WA 213 U. S. ARMY: COLONELS COL LOUIS MYLES JACKSON Commander Toxic Haz Mat Agy Edgewood, MD COL ROLAND M. JOE Deputy Chief of Staff Human Resources Division USA, Europe COL LARRY REGINALD JORDAN Brigade Commander IN HHG 02 Bde Kitzingen, GE COL FRANK PURNELL OAKLEY Brigade Commander MI BDE Ft. Monmouth, NJ COL TOMMY TAYLOR OSBORNE Brigade Commander 15th Signal Brigade Ft. Gordon, GA COL EUGENE FREDERICK SCOTT Discom Commander HHC DISCOM 1CD Ft. Hood, TX COL DOROTHY ELAINE SPENCER CDR USAISEC CONUS USAISEC CONUS Ft. Ritchie, VA COL WILLIE ALBERT TEMPTON USAREUR Theater HQU 7A ODCSOPS Heidelberg, GE COL SAMUEL PRYOR WALKER PMS UTC Hampton Institute Hampton, VA 214 U. S. ARMY: SERGEANTS MAJOR SGM RUSSEL ANDERSON USATC Ft. Jackson, SC SGM WILLIE BATTLE USA ORD CEN & School APG, MD SGM JEROME BETTIS ODCSPER Washington, DC SGM MERELL BLEDSOE USA Postal Grp Eur APO NY (Schwetz) SGM GLORIA J. BROKE Brook Army Med Center Ft. Sam Houston, TX SGM ARTHUR BUFORD USAO Gen & School N APG, MD SGM JOE L. BRYANT 748th MI BN Ft. Sam Houston, TX SGM CHARLES CHAPPELL 9th Inf DISCOM Ft. Lewis, WA SGM FREDERICK CLAYTON Walter Reed AMC Washington, DC 215 U. S. ARMY: SERGEANTS MAJOR SGM WILLIAM C. DALTON 29th Sig Bde Fort Gordon, GA SGM ANTHONY L. EATON Cadet Commander Ft. Monroe, VA SGM EDWARD GARRETT USA INF CTR Ft. Benning, GA SGM BRUCE T. HUDSON 442nd Sig Bn Ft. Gordon, GA SGM HAROLD HUNT USA LABCOM Adelphi, MD SGM EDWARD JONES 7TH Sig CMD Ft. Ritchie, MD SGM ROY MCCORMES USA AVN CTR & FR Ft. Rucker, AL SGM SAMUEL L. McKOY Command Sgt. Major Aberdeen Proving Grounds, MD SGM CHARLIE MILLER, II USA ORD, MIS & MUN Redstorn Arselan, AL 216 U. S. ARMY: SERGEANTS MAJOR SGM JOSHUA PERRY US ARMY MP CTR & SCH Ft. McClellan, AL SGM RAYMOND R. POLK, SR. USAISC Ft. Huachuca, AZ SGM TONY L. SALTER USATC & Ft. Dix Ft. Dix, NJ SGM HARRY J. STANFIELD, JR. Fitzsimmons AMC Fitzsimmons AMC, CO SGM EARL E. SMITH 3rd USA Fort McPherson, GA SGM PAUL L. TUCKER 217 U. S. NAVY: OFFICERS CAPT JULIA OTEALA BARNES Medical Staff Naval Medical Command Southeast Region CAPT DAVID L. BREWER Special Assistant to the CNO Office of the CNO CAPT JOHN PRICE KELLY Comptroller Naval Medical Command San Francisco, CA CAPT EDWARD MOORE, JR. Commanding Officer (Prospective) USS COWPENS (CG-63) CAPT BUDDIE JOE PENN Director of Security Assistance Operations Office of Technology Transfer and Security Assistance CAPT WILTON R. STEWART Dir, Navy EEOI, MMPC Washington, DC CAPT CHARLES LEROY TOMPKINS Commanding Officer Enlisted Personnel Manpower Accounting Center CAPT MARGIE LOUISE TURNER Director of WWMCCS ADP Systems Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command CAPT JAMES CHARLES WILLIAMS Chaplain Naval Education & Training Program Management Support Activity 218 U. S. NAVY: OFFICERS CAPT ANTHONY JOHN WATSON Deputy Commandant of Midshipmen CAPT. (S) JOHNNIE M. BOYNTON Professor of Naval Science NROTC Southern University A & M CDR EVERETT LEWIS GREENE Staff Assistant CNO for Surface Warfare Staff (S) Refers to Select Status 219 U. S. NAVY: MASTER CHIEF PETTY OFFICERS MCPO ALBERT ADKINS Aircraft Maintenanceman Maintenance Control Composite Squardon Six MCPO HARLEY BROWN Aircraft Maintenanceman Command Master Chief Naval Air Station, Jacksonville CPO CARL LEE COBB Torpedorsmans Mate Staff Naval Intelligence Command San Diego MCPO JAMES GLOVER, JR. Aviation Boatswains Mate Staff Naval Air Station, Jacksonville MCPO ALBERT JACKSON, JR. Fire Controlman Force Master Chief Chief of Naval Education & Training MCPO ISSAC INGRAM, JR. Machinists Mate Command Master Chief Naval Military Personnel Guard MCPO SANDRA ELZARA KEETON Navy Counselor Staff Naval Air Force, Pacific MCPO WILLIE LEE McRAE Boiler Technician Staff Destroyer Squadron Two MCPO OTHAN N. MONDY Aircraft Maintenanceman Force Master Chief Naval Air Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet 220 U. S. NAVY: MASTER CHIEF PETTY OFFICERS MCPO SOLOMON REED Data Processing Technician Command Master Chief Navy Recruiting Command MCPO JIMMIE C. WILLIAMS Boatswains Mate Staff Naval Surface Force U.S. Pacific Fleet 221 U. S. MARINE CORPS: OFFICERS COLONEL J. P. ALLEN, JR. Marine Corps Advisor PMS-377 Navy Sea Systems Command Washington, DC COLONEL C. F. BOLDEN, JR Astronaut Space Task Group Appollo Houston, TX COLONEL F. L. JONES Exec Assistant Deputy for Support MCRDAC Washington, DC COLONEL J. W. MOFFETT Director, Operations and Training HQBN MCAGCC Twenty Nine Palms, CA COLONEL H. L. REED Head, Plans & Budget Branch Training & Educational Ctr (Perm Pers) COLONEL C. L. STANLEY Advisor for POW/MIA Affairs & Asst. for Australia and New Zealand The Pentagon Washington, DC LT. COLONEL (S) D. A. DANIELS Commanding Officer, MEP Station 77 Forsyth St. Martin Luther King, Jr. Fed Building Atlanta, GA MAJOR D. T. WILLIAMS College Degree Program MCSF US NAVAL BASE Norfolk,VA (S) Refers to Select Status 222 U. S. MARINE CORPS: ENLISTED PERSONNEL SERGEANT MAJOR K. BROOKS 2nd MAW FMFLANT Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, NC SERGEANT MAJOR R. L FIELDS 2nd Landing Support Battalion Camp Lejune, NC SERGEANT MAJOR D. JOHNSON HQ&HQ Squadron Marine Corps Air Station Tustin, CA SERGEANT MAJOR J. L MORRIS Inspector General Sergeant Major Office of the Naval Inspector Gen. CO A HQBN HQMC SERGEANT MAJOR REESE Command Element 13th MEU (SOC) Camp Pendleton, CA SERGEANT MAJOR S. ROBINSON Group Sergeant Major HQ Marine Air Group 36 San Francisco, CA MSTR GUNNERY SGT J. BEY, SR. Communication Chief H&S Co, 2d SRI Group II MEF FMFLANT Camp Lejune, NC MSTR GUNNERY SGT C. DAVIS G-2 Chief 4th MARDIV (REIN) FMF USMCR New Orleans, LA MSTR GUNNERY SGT D. B. PACE Operations Chief 2nd CBT ENGR BN Camp Lejune, NC 223 U. S. MARINE CORPS: ENLISTED PERSONNEL MSTR GUNNERY SGT R. J. JOHNSON Wing Engineer Chief MWHS-4 DET A 4th MAW 400 Dauphine St. NSA New Orleans, LA MSTR GUNNERY SGT F. SIMMONS NCOIC Marine Corps Detachment Naval School EOD Naval Ord Stn. Indianhead, MD MSTR GUNNERY SGT T. C. WILLIAMS Training & Visual Info. Suppt Chief Headquarters & Service BN MCRD Paris Island, SC SGM CECIL M. WRIGHT Recruiting Station Orlando, FL SGM JOHN H. WILLS USMC 224 U. S. AIR FORCE: COLONELS COL WESLEY R. ARDIS Chief, Installation Mgmt Division Directorate of Programs The Pentagon COL HAROLD A. ARCHIBALD Directorate for Operations J3, Joint Staff Fort Richie, MD COL GUION S. BLUFORD, JR. Astronaut-Mission Spec. (NASA) Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Houston, TX COL WILBERTON CASTLEBERRY Deputy Director, Plans and Policy HQ SAC Offutt AFB, NE COL JOHN A CULVER Deputy Director, Pgms & Air Force Board Matters ACS/SC (HQ USAF) Washington, DC. COL WAYNE T. FISHER Commander, 377 Civil Engineering Grp (USAFE) Ramstein AFB, GE COL BILLY R. GAMBLE Commander, 1836th Engineering Installation Group (AFCC) Lindsey AFB, GE COL FREDERICK D. GREGORY Astronaut-Pilot (NASA) Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Houston, TX COL VICTOR E. HARDIN Deputy for EUCOM/NATO Pgms International Logistics Center Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 225 U. S. AIR FORCE: COLONELS COL EDWARD HENDERSON, JR. Chief of Staff Defense Communications Agency Arlington, VA COL ALBERT A. L. HOCKADAY Commandant Air Force Chaplain School (HQ AU) Maxwell AFB, AL COL JOHN D. HOPPER, JR Deputy Commander of Operations 63rd Military Airlift Wing Norton AFB, CA COL CLARENCE J. KELLEY Director, Command & Control & Mission Support Systems Washington, DC COL MARVlN G. MATTHEWS Chief, Tactical Warning/Attack Assessment Branch NMCS Joint Staff (JCS) Washington, DC COL LLOYD W. NEWTON Commander 12th Flying Training Wing (ATC) Randolph AFB, TX COL PAUL G. PATTON Commander, Research & Acquisition Comm. Division (AFCC) Andrews AFB, MD COL HERMAN A. PERGUESE Director, Contract Management Hdqtrs, Air Force Syst Command Andrews AFB, MD COL JOSEPH C. RAMSEY, JR. Commander Air Reserve Personnel Center Lowry AFB, CO 226 U. S. AIR FORCE: COLONELS COL LEONARD M. RANDOLPH, JR Deputy Command Surgeon/Dir. Professional Services (HQ TAC) Langley AFB, VA COL RICHARD D. RAY Deputy Chief Colonels' Group (HQ AFMPC) Randolph AFB, TX COL CATO L. REAVES Assistant Deputy Director Contingency Plans (HQ TAC) Langley AFB, VA COL JAMES H. SCOTT Commander Air Force Commissary Service Hickam AFB, HI COL WALTER E. SMITH Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff Engineering and Services Scott AFB, IL COL HOWARD P. SWEENEY Staff Judge Advocate Twenty-Second Air Force Travis AFB, CA COL CLARA B. WALLACE Chief Nurse Education Br (HQ AFMPC) Randolph AFB, TX COL WILLIAM H. WALTON Director, Military Equal Opportunity Policy (DOD) Washington, DC COL HENRY J. WILLIAMS Commander Base Military Training School (ATC) Lackland AFB, TX 227 U. S. AIR FORCE COLONEL SELECT COL (S) FRANK J. ANDERSON, JR. Director Programming & Policy Implementation Contracting & Manufacturing Andrews AFB, MD COL (S) WALTER I. JONES Chief, Telecommun Mgt Branch Command, Controm and Commun Systems Directorate USCINCPAC, Camp H.M. Smith, HI COL (S) BEN F. McCARTER Director, Commanders Staff Group HQ, AFSC, Andrews AFB, MD COL WILLIAM E. STEVENS Chief, Middle East/Africa/South Asia Division Deputy Directorate Regional Plans & Policy COL(S) J. D. WELLS Deputy Director for Special Projects AF/SCS The Pentagon 228 U. S. AIR FORCE: CHIEF MASTER SERGEANTS CMSGT DON M. BOURDEAUX Chief, Aerial Gunners Branch 16th S O Squadron Hurlburt Field, FL CMSGT JERRY BROWN Senior Enlisted Advisor 834th Airlift Division/CMS Hickman Field, HI CMSGT HARVEY J. COUNCIL Maintenance Manager 89th Organization Maintenance Squadron/MAOS Andrews AFB, MD CMSGT WILLIE K. CURRIE Senior Enlisted Advisor United States Air Force in Europe APO New York CMSGT ALBRIEY FORTE Executive to Chief of Staff HQ AF Space Command Peterson AFB, CO CMSGT J. C. FUNCHESS Deputy Dir. of Family Support Ctr 1003rd Mission Support Squad. Peterson AFB, CO CMSGT ROBERT E. GIBBS, JR. Air Force Life Support Manager 366th Tactical Fighter Wing/DOOTL Mountain Home AFB, ID CMSGT MILTON S. HARRIS Assistant Executive NCO Tactical Air Command/DRE Langley AFB, VA CMSGT EARL T. JOYNER Air Force Systems Command LGMW Andrews AFB, MD 229 U. S. AIR FORCE: CHIEF MASTER SERGEANTS CMSGT CARLTON LAND Chief, Resource Manager Air Force Mgmt. Engineering Agency/RM Randolph AFB, TX CMSGT RICHARD LINDSEY Senior Enlisted Advisor Eastern Space & Missile Center Patrick AFB, FL CMSGT DARLITO V. LUMPKIN Medical Service Mgr to the Chief Air Force Element, Blood Pgm. BoIling AFB, DC CMSGT CLAYTON MOORE Superintendent, DCS Plans Air Force Space Command/7XPEA Peterson AFB, CO CMSGT JAMES J. PLUCK, JR. Deputy Chief, Spec. Pgms Division AFMCtr/DPMRX Randolph AFB, TX CMSGT ALFREDO J. SAMPLE Chief, Information Management Tactical Air Command/IGEA Langley AFB, VA 230 U. S. ARMY/AIR NATIONAL GUARD: OFFICERS COL THOMAS L. DANIELS Executive Officer Oklahoma NGB/CV Pentagon ANG COL WARREN LESLIE FREEMAN Chief of Staff District of Columbia NG COL LAWRENCE E. GILLESPIE Commander, Troop Command District of Columbia NG COL IRENE TROWELL-HARRIS Bolling AFB District of Columbia NG COL ROBERT C. LOGAN Director of Logistics California NG COL JAMES EDWARD MALLORY Director of Operations Plans and Programs District of Columbia NG COL LESTER L. McINTYRE Assistant Adjutant General Texas ANG COL PAUL DAVID MONROE, JR. Government Affairs Officer Policy and Liaison Office California NG COL GILBERT E. SIDNEY Director of Resource Management Minnesota NG 231 U. S. ARMY/AIR NATIONAL GUARD: OFFICERS COL JAMES MILTON SINGLETON Chief of Selective Service Op. Louisiana NG COL EZELL WARE, JR. Assistant Director Office of Policy and Liaison California NG COL ROSCOE CONKLIN YOUNG State Surgeon District of Columbia NG LT COL CLARA HOLLIS Delaware NG LT COL ATTAH-JUNDWE OBIAJULU HQ Troop Command New York ANG LT COL WALTER LEWIS PERSHA Florida ANG LT COL JESSE WILLIAMS, JR. Illinois NG MAJ GEORGE ALEXANDER Delaware NG COL CAROL D. BOONE ANG Advisor, HqUSAF Personnel Plans New Mexico ANG 232 U. S. ARMY/AIR NATIONAL GUARD: ENLISTED PERSONNEL SGM REGINALD BOUNDS 3/102nd Armory New Jersey ANG SGM JOHN E. CONWAY Delaware NG SGM RAY L. HOOKS Connecticut ANG SGM GEORGE D. JOHNSON SGM ALLEN JAMES KIRKPATRICK Command Sergeant Major 33rd Infantry Brigade SGM EUGENE J. KNIGHT SGM FRANK B. MARTIN Brigade Sergeant Major 404th Chemical Brigade Illinois ANG SGM W. G. MATTHEWS District of Colummia ANG SGM FRED J. MURRAY District of Columbia NG 233 U.S. ARMY/AIR NATIONAL GUARD: ENLISTED PERSONNEL SGM BYRANT J. PEGRAM SGM HERMAN T. PRESTON, JR. District of Columbia NG SGM EDGAR A. SHEPPARD District of Columbia NG CMSGT ALTON SIMMONS NCOIC Quality Assurance New Jersey ARNG SGM MELVIN L. SMITH, JR. CMSGT QUENTIN G. STILL NCOIC Security Police New Jersey ANG SGM RAMON THOMPSON 175th Medical Brigade California ANG SGM WILLIAM J. THORNTON Special Army Forces Maryland ANG SGM CARL B. TRUEHEART 103rd MP Bgn. District of Colombia ANG 234 U. S. ARMY/AIR NATIONAL GUARD: ENLISTED PERSONNEL CMSGT MATTHEW VAUGHN State Senior Enlisted Advisor New Jersey ARNG MSG GEORGE B. BROWN MSG CLARENCE ELDRIDGE District of Columbia ANG MSG GEORGE LUCKEY District of Columbia NG MSG MACKINLEY SMITH District of Columbia ANG 235 U. S. COAST GUARD: OFFICERS CAPT EDWARD R. WILLIAMS Special Assistant Deputy Chief of Training USCG Headquarters Washington, DC CDR ELMO J. PETERS, JR. Executive Officer Support Center New Orleans, LA CDR CHARLES B. WILLIAMS Assistant Chief Telecommunication Systems Washington, DC CDR JOHN G. WITHERSPOON Commanding Officer Vessel Traffic Station Houston/Galveston, Tx LT. SHARON D. DONALD Public Affairs Officer 5th Coast Guard District Portsmouth, VA MR. WALTER R. SOMERVILLE (SES) Chief, Office of Civil Rights USCG Headquarters Washington, D.C. (Coast Guard's highest ranking Black civilian employee) 237 U. S. COAST GUARD: ENLISTED PERSONNEL CPO ROBERT E. BONNETTE Program Manager Enlisted Guaranteed Schools Washington, DC CPO DAVID C. BUNCH Non-Resident Course/Exam Writer Reserve Training Center Yorktown, VA CPO DORIS H. HULL USCG Training Center Cape May, NJ CPO MYRA L. MAXWELL USCG HDQTRS Washington, DC EMC P. D. AUTRY CPO C. L SUTTON Assistant Chief, Personnel Branch 8th Coast Guard District New Orleans, LA CPO CURTIS E. SCOTT USCG Training Center Petaluma, CA 238 PART FOUR: BLACK MILITARY/ DEFENSE ROLL CALL CHAPTER IX BLACK AMERICAN ROLL CALLS AT THE UNITED STATES MILITARY SERVICE ACADEMIES The United States Military Academy West Point, New York Military Academy emblem In 1799, when Alexander Hamilton proposed a combined military education based upon a fundamental school at West Point, he also asked for three specialized schools for engineers, artillery, infantry and cavalry and the Navy. It was not until 1843 that a system for regular appointments of cadets was instituted, relying upon the President and Congress for such appointments. The Civil War proved that the Military Academy at West Point was indeed what it had been hoped that it would be...an institution that trained young men to assume leadership roles in many areas of endeavor, especially those dealing with the military. This war saw graduates from the academy fighting on both sides. It was not until 1902 that the real educational purpose of the Academy made itself manifest in its curriculum. This program included an entire liberal curriculum which included English and the liberal arts. Thus, the concept of "the officer and the gentleman" began to bear fruit. It was after World War I when General Douglas MacArthur became Superintendent that the curriculum began to reflect the modern concept of what is expected of the Academy. MacArthur had the curriculum revised to emphasize physical conditioning, weaponry, field tactic, military history and the concept of total war added to history, sociology and economics. Following World War II, the curriculum was changed again, this time making more provisions for blacks.
Photo of Henry O. Flipper In 1877, Henry O. Flipper became the first black to graduate from the Academy, but the Army really had no place for the black officer. He eventually left the service under conditions that were considered less than honorable. Nearly 100 years after his leaving the Academy, his record proved that he was wronged and an honorable discharge was issued in his name. His bust now adorns the alcove of the Cadet Library. Following Flipper, several other blacks completed the training and were commissioned second lieutenants. Most notable among these were Charles Young, who rose to the rank of Colonel before he was retired from the Army and Benjamin O. Davis Jr, who went on to become a three-star general in the Air Force. 239 During the decade of the 1980's, General Gorden became the first black to assume the superintendency of the United States Military Academy at West Point. By that time (in 1968), the Academy had established an Equal Admissions Opportunity Policy, and the number of blacks increased sharply. For example, there had been only 17 black cadets at the Academy in 1968, but that number increased to 77 the following year. Since that time, there have been a significant number of black graduates, both male and female, from that institution, They are found in all phases of cadet life and activities. The figures that follow show the black graduates from the Academy on a yearly basis from 1877 through 1984. After that date, the names are of graduates and the current class lists. 240 BLACK GRADUATES AND CLASS LISTS FOR UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY 1877-1993 Class of 1877 Class of 1963 Flipper, Henry O. Banks, Edgar Jr. Jackson, David S. Class of 1887 Ivy, William L. Alexander, John H. Handcox, Robert C. Class of 1889 Class of 1964 Young, Charles D. Miller, Warren F. Jr. Ramsay, David L. Class of 1936 Davis, Benjamin O. Jr. Class of 1965 Anderson, Joseph B. Class of 1941 Conley, James S. Fowler, James D. Hester, Arthur C. Jenkins, Harold A. Jr. Class of 1943 Davenport, Clarence M. Class of 1966 Tresville, Robert B. Jr. Cox, Ronald E. Davis, Thomas B. III Class of 1944 Ramsay, Robert B. Francis, Henry M. Class of 1967 Class of 1945 Fowler, James D. Jr. Davis, Ernest J. Jr. Whaley, Bobby G. Rivers, Mark E. Jr. Class of 1968 Class of 1946 Copeland, Rene G. McCoy, Andrew A. Jr. Flowers, Ernest Jr. Garcia, Victor Class of 1949 Howard, James T. Howard, Edward B. Jordan, Larry R. Smith, Charles L. Martin, John T. III Outlaw, Leroy B. Class of 1950 Robinson, Benny L. Carlisle, David Rotie, Wilson L. Jr. Green, Robert W. Tildon, Ralph B. Class of 1951 Class of 1969 Brown, Norman J. Cooper, Cornelius Jr. Wainer, Douglas F. Cousar, Robert J. Jr. Robinson, Roscoe Jr. Groves, Sheldon H. Woodson, William B. Hackett, Jerome R. Young, James R. Jr. Minor, James A. Jr. Steele, Michael F. Class of 1953 Tabela, Francis E. Corprew, Gerald Williams, Michael M. Hughes, Bernard C. Worthy, Clifford Class of 1970 Mason, Robert E. Class of 1954 Morgan, Frederick M. Lee, Ronald B. Price, Willie J. Turner, LeRoy C. Reid, Trevor A. Robinson, Hugh G. Robinson, Bruce E. Steel, Gary R. Class of 1955 Thomas, Kenneth L. Hamilton, John M. Jr. Olive, Lewis C. Jr. Class of 1971 Cassells, Cyrus C. Jr. Anderson, Edgar Batchman, Gilbert R. Brice, David L. Brown, John M. Dedmond, Tony E. Edwards, Joe Class of 1956 Freeman, Robert E. Blunt, Robert R. James, Kevin T. Plummer, William W. Class of 1957 Bradley, Martin G. Class of 1972 McCullom, Cornell Jr. Burns, Cornelius Mension, Danny L. Class of 1958 Squires, Percy Brunner, Ronald S. Class of 1973 Class of 1959 Adams, Jesse B. Baugh, Raymond C. Bell, Richard Jr. Kelley, Wilburne A. III Bivens, Courtland C. III King, Jimmie D. Class of 1960 Lewis, Kevin M. Dorsey, Ira Lynch, Myron C. Mallory, Phillip L. Class of 1961 Reid, Ronnie E. Brown, Reginald J. Sample, Allan L. Quinn, Kenneth L. Spaulding, Milton C. Taylor, Theodore R. Class of 1962 Topping, Gerald W. Gorden, Fred L. 241 Wallace, Michael D. Collins, Vincent R. Wheeler, Clayton R. Daily, Anthony B. Eugene, Bernhard G. Class of 1975 Howell, Mitchell A. Anderson, D. T. Jackson, Arthur D. Armstrong, B. M. Jones, Curtis L. Austin, L. J. Jr. Lewis, Bret A. Benn, J. F. Jr. Lunsford, Joseph M. Boddie, O. B. Jr. Lynem, Joseph P. Bradley, R. McFadden, Reginald Briggs-Hall, M. A. Miott, Rory Q. Brown, A. B. Jr. Mitchell, Robert L. Byrd, J.E. Mosby, William E. Cheese, R. A. Pace, Gerald D. Dupree, D. W. Peebles, Darrell Dyer, A. G. Ross, James L. Hanford, C. B. Sanders, Carl E. Harris, D. L. Scott, Kenneth L. Harris, J. W. III Scriber, Phillip H. Hicks, J. E. Taliferro, Jerry Johnson, E. A. Jr. Terry, William R. Johnson, R. E. Thompson, Terrance Jones, J. D. III Vaughn, James A. Jordan, N. C. Washington, Donald Lewis, S. J. Williams, Calvin Maney, E. K. Wilson, Alfred A. Mooney, D. L. Wilson, Michael B. Peters, V. M. Pinkney, R. M. Class of 1978 Shaw, E. E. Jr. Adams, D. C. Smith, M. L. Allen, C. D. South, C. M. Jr. Alston, L. M. Taylor, P. L. III Bassa, R. L Thigpen, W. L. Beatty, W. D. Williams, D. L. Bostick, T. P. Williams, J. P. Bowman, Q. V. Bulls, H. E. Class of 1976 Cade, B. D. Alexander, M. A. Carter, R. L Austin, C,.W Clark, M. C. Bivins, D. K. Collins, T. W. Brown, J.L English, M. A. Chase, R. P. Ford, S. H. Collins, L. C. Fore, H. R. Crecy, W. G. Fry, D.L. Crocker, V. B. Grant, R. A. Crofton, W. T. Hall, M. H. Dixon, M. L. Hamilton, W. Elam, A. Hargrove, P. H. Fields, G. Harris, C. A. Floyd, J. N. Herndon, H. E. Grammar, J. K. Hollingsworth, J. Hayes, A. B. Holman, S. E. Hicks, P. L Johns, O. H. Jett, S. A. Johnson, H. E. Johnson, R. L. Jourdan, L. T. Little, L. L King, G. Louis, V. D. Landry, P. G. Lullen, J. J. Lewis, D. G. McKenzie, C. Mallory, R. P. Miles, H. A. Martin, Q. R. Morgan, E. R. Miles, F. M. Owens, J. F. Mingilton, M. D. Perry, M. J. Mitchell, C. Pruitt, W. H. Mobley, D. L. Ricks, S. J. Moseley, D. L Shelton, L. E. Moseley, M. M. Simpson, P. R. Moye, M. Sims, K E. Nixon, W. J. Slate, L. Owens, C. D. Smith, M. A. Ouslley, G. M. White, M. A. Pilgrim, C. F. Whitlock, W. P. Price, W. W. Williams, H. M. Scribner, C. F. Seaton, M. J. Class of 1977 Smith, C. Belcher, Gerald A. Taylor, T. T. Beverly, Raymond N. White, W. L. Butler, Cranson A. Wilson, K H. Carson, Ivory D. Winton, G. J. Chapman, Reginald K. Young, V. J. Clark, Edward D. Clay, James 242 Class of 1979 Class of 1981 Adams, William D. Bland, Melvin H. Ash, Toney L. Britton, Randy A. Austin, Michael D. Cook, Jeffrey S. Balom, Curtis II Cooper, Keith L. Beasley, Michael D. David, James E. Bonds, Marcus B. Davis, Archie L. Brannon, Gregory K Delahoussaye, P. J. Brooks, Leo A. Evans, Leroy M. Brundage, Clennie Freeman, Thomas Bullard, Edward J. Gates, James A. Clark, David C. Gibson, Byron Clemons, Edward K Grady, Norman M. Darlington, Loyd Graham, David G. Deramus, Lawrence D. Green, Emmett F. Fowlkes, Essex Hall, Kimetha G. Fuller, Duane E. Harris, Daryl E. Gordon, Robert L. Hembry, James E. Griffin, Wesley B. Hill, James B. Hall, Kevin L. Hines, Curtis T. Hardrick, Harold S. Jackson, Christopher H. Hooper, Charles W. Johnson, Hiram N. Howard, Maroc L. Lambright, Michael Hughes, Bernard C. Luster, Robert A. Jackson, Stanley M. Lyons, Dereck E. Jennings, Tony O. Mazyck, Alphonse F. Macklin, Phillip D. Miner, Michael D. McCall, James T. Peterson, Daryl W. McKissick, Isaac V. Petty, James E. Miller, Kevin L Pittard, Danna J. Mitchell, Chris T. Polite, Anita M. Oliver, Joseph P. Porter, Ronald A. Petit, Jules G. Pullen, Harvey L. Pettus, Carlous T. Reid, Carlton B. Sears, Walter A. Shields, Robert L. Sledge, Nathaniel H. Somersall, Paul O. Sobers, Arthur A. Streets, Kevin A. Staten, Michael U. Stroud, Andrew B. Stewart, John Taylor, John J. Tabler, Anthony P. Thompson, Kevin S. Taylor, Clarence E. Topping, Kenneth L. Traylor, Jimmie L. Turrentine, Larry C. Veney, David W. Webb, Anthony V. Walter, Clifford S. Wilkins, Stephen M. Wilkerson, Joseph W. Williams, Eddie E. Williams, C. Jr. Williams, Michael G. Williams, James I. Wilson, Duane Williams, Thomas Willis, Michael B. Class of 1982 Yancey, David T. Almore, Arthur Yeldell, Anthony L. Austin, Stanley Bell, Oliver J. Class of 1980 Bennett, Jerryl Beans, Michael Bland, Christopher Bland, Andrew R. Boston, Stephen Brooks, Vincent K Boutte, Brian M. Dallas, Joy S. Callahan, Dennis Dennis, Darrell C. Cofield, William Ellerbe, Michael D. Coleman, Joseph Gayle, Michael D. Dabney, Harold Gillis, Reginald R. Dodson, Walter Grace, Karl F. Dunn, James F. Grayer, Curtis A. Goodwin, Michael Harrington, W. D. Grammer, Nadja Hervey, George A. Hackney, John K. Hilliard, John F. Hargraves, William Jones, Ernest W. Harris, David D. Jones, Jeffrey Heard, Lance Laney, Mark N. Hervey, Cordell Jr. Mattingly, John A. Hollifield, Rodney Mays, George S. Johnson, Chris Miles, Lloyd Jones, Emmett Perdue, Rodney Jones, Kermit Rivers, Eddie L. Knotts, Lester Robinson, Hugh G. Lowry, William L. Scott, James C. Malloy, Brian Shepherd, Gilbert Miller, Cliff Sledge, William T. Mosby, Stewart Stephens, Gregory B. Perry, Benjamin II Strode, Tollie Powell, Webster Turner, Henry C. Walter, Priscilla 243 Skinner, Eugene Smith, Daryl G. Spencer, Michael Tai, Neville P. Terry, Gary L. Thomas, Fern J. Thomas, David L. Tunnell, Harry D. Wilkins, David Walters, Anthony J. Williams, Gary Watford, Roslyn A. Wilmer, Archie III White, Ronald O. Wynder, Allen Watson, Tee Gee Taylor, Howard A. Class of 1985 Class of 1983 Atkins, Elton Dominic Alexander, William Allen, Michael C., Allen, Clinton O. Asberry, Herman III Allen, William T. Augustine, Harvey III Barbers, Charles R. Babers, Alex L. III Bell, Jonathan A. Baisden, Michael Copeland, Anthony E. Banks, Daniel Theodore Crumlin, Michael A. Barring, Troy Allen Crutcher, Charlie W. Bishop, Garry Parrant Daniel, Jeffrey Arnaz Black, Aurelia L. Davis, Alfrazier Blount, Anthony L. Fitzgerald, Gregory S. Brown, James Bernard Foster, Stephen P. Bryant, Vincent D. Gates, Willie E. Carr, Angela D. George, Marc C. Carroll, Catherine Leigh Hamilton, Marcus K Clark, Geoffrey Rene Hayes, Morris G. Corbett, Carl D. Hopson, Mark J. Corbett, Jeffrey Charles Jackson, Julius Dallas, Jeffrey Burton Jackson, Libby A. Gary, Michael Wayne Johnson, Christine Gaston, Patrick Bernard Lightball, Donnell Giles, Edward E. McFadden, Willie J. Goodley, Timothy Wayne Morgan, Thomas Jr. Greenhouse, Paul Stephen Neason, Clarence Jr. Griffin, Eric Samuel Newkirk, Brian T. Griffin, Oliver Charles II Oakes, Patrick B. Hamilton, Marvin Karl Pruitt, Larry H. Hollingsworth, Jarvis V. Rodriquez, Anthony P. Hood, Brian M. Thomas, Johnny F. Horton, Michael Phillip Thompson, James A. Jacobs, Ronald Jr. Vaughan, John K. Johnson, Calvin Vernard Walker, Gerald J. Johnson, Mark Daniel Williams, Cardell Johnson, Mark Stephen Williams, Darryl A. Jones, Leon Jr. Williams, Michael K. Jones, Melvin Jr. Jordan, Jansen James Class of 1984 King, Rhonda Michelle Armstrong, Bryan J. Ladson, Gary L. Baldwin, Cleophas Lane, Charles Barnett Jr. Boyd, Daniel O. Lawson, John Henry Jr. Bradley, Sherry J. Lockett, Phillip Whitney Brown, Kenneth Lowery, Veronica Ann Celestan, Gregory J. Madden, Vernard C. Cobb, Alma J. Manzy, Tyrone Joseph Cuerington, Andre M. Marshall, Jacqueline Y. Delphin, Julie A. McCloud, Makie L. Dow, Thurman E. McKelvy, William K. Gamble, Eddie L Metoyer, Bryford Glenn Jr. Gardner, Kevin G. Moore, Kevin D. Gaston, Angela M. Morris, John Spurgeon III Grayer, Gerren S. Myers, Robert T. Holiday, Herschel L. Newsome, Michael H. Howard, Rory J. Peterson, Queen E. Johnson, Derek Peterson, Terence Eugene Jones, Kevin Pierce, Ron Paul Lamber, Alexander L Jr. Piper, Samuel Thelmon III McCloud, William P. Poinsette, Kenneth Elija McNair, Kerry V. Ramsey, James E. Mickens, Stanley V. Robinson, John Carter Morgan, Gergory L. Rogers, Dawne Marie Myhand, Rickey C. Scott, Alfred Jr. Newsome, Earl Slaughter, Sherry Alysine Oatis, Demetrius C. Smith, Rodney Damon Oliver, Ernest M. Steen, Michael A. Reever, Daryl K. Stewart, James Edward Rhodes, Robert E. Taylor, Jonathan Richardson, Rickey W. Terry, Kathleen Robinson, Bruce E. Thompson, Allene Claire Rogers, Beverly Y. Tifre, Edwin Shaw, Everett M. Sistrunk, Thomas M. III 244 True, Lelia Beth Benjamin, Robert E.Jr. Walker, Swane A. Bennett, Benjamin M. III Walker, Kevin Eric Biggins, Larry Darnell Washington, Versalle F. Billington, Courtney Lance Webster, Lee Sydney Blackwell, Darren C. Wilson, Kevin Bernard Bodiford, Kurt Alan Woolfolk, Darryl K. Boston, James Edward Wright, Degas Anglo Brown, Deanna Yvette Calhoun, John Quentin Class of 1986 Campbell, Terrance D. Anderson, Frank H. III Cephas, John Walter Bazemore, Cleveland D. Croskey, Joseph Perry II Boykin, Oswald Stephen III Cunningham, Walter L. Jr. Bradford, Richard Luther Downey, Eric Ramon Calloway, Dennis Lenore Fleece, David Harlan Champion, Wendell M. Forchion, Preston Lee II Childs, Willie James Fore, Aaron Bernard Collins, Michelle Loree Fullwood, Reginald Jr. Cooke, Berkley Eugene Gilkey, Paul Elizabeth Cooper, Byron Willie Greaux, Keith Dereck David, Sharri Janell Hall, Katrina Darlene Davis, Tanya Lynn Harmon, Johathan Paul Day, Richard Alan Harrison, Karl Desmond Edwards, Keevin Bernard Hope, Nathaniel Demetric Ellis, Michael Delane Hunter, Yvette Nevert Erkins, Phyllis Renee Jackson, Charles J. Jr. Etheredge, Tod Steven Jackson, Roceric Carl Fleming, Lorie Nichole James, David LeRay Gaines, Eric Allen Johnson, Anthony James Garland, Paul Webb Johnson, Nathan Jr. Gibbs, Marilyn Marie Jones, Clarence Contee Jr. Grandberry, Walter Lee III Jones, Kim Less Greene, Terrance Michael Jones, Michael Harris, Marc Damond Kegler, Michael Alexander Hemmans, Eve Ruth King, Reginal D. Henderson, Michael A. Kyle, George McClelland Holliday, Guy Dozier Lampley, William Thomas Huggins, Kevin Lamonte Lewis, Ronald Flynn Hughes, Lawrence G. Long, Sean Terrance Hylton, Anthony Charles Matthews, George Nelson Johnson, Beverly Delores McGriff, Sammie Lee II Kennedy, Frank Melvin McKenzie, Pearline A. Lane, Sherman Horton Morris, Stephen Albert R. Lipscomb, Racheau D. Jr. Morrison, Rickey Michael Loche, George Eugene Nelson, Wendell Lewis Lockett, Robert Frazier Jr. Polanco, Miguel Angel McKelvy, Kevin Wayne Pollard, Stephanie L. McKnight, Balvin A. Riley, Nicola Irene McLeod, Craig Michael Rivera, Franklin Delano II Mixon, Laurence Martin Ross, Elbert George Monroe, Dexter Bernard Sampson, Kenneth C. Jr. Motley, Edward Todd Sanders, William Alton Mount, Edward James Jr. Santos, Michael C. Noble, William Francis Jr. Shannon, Joyce Midori Pearson, Pamela Denise Smith, Irving III Phillips, Elliott Oliver Jr. Smith, Maria Yvette Pope, Danita Smith, Monica Lynne Purnell, Lavon R. Smith, Paolo Francesco Richardson, Clifford Solomon, Norman Eugene Scott, Gordon Anthony Steptoe, Ronald Joseph Sercy, William III Suggs, Michael Luigi Smith, Eugene Daryl Tatum, Vernon Lemont Smith, Frederica Suzette Tuggle, Eric Andre Smith, Michael Darren Turner, Eric Christopher Stephens, Stephanie Lyn Turner, Keven Tafares, David A. Turner, Michael Edward Tolson, Todd Fitzgerald Washington, Paul L. Jr. Turner, Karen Allison Wells, Robert Lee Jr. Ward, William Edward White, Benjamin Mitchel Washington, Valerie Lynn White, Timothy Mark Whale, George Lee Williams, Charlene Corene White, James Starling Jr. Williams, Daniel Edward Williams, Antonio Williams, Ila Nadine Williams, Charled E. Jr. Willis, Dale Costello II Williams, Thearon Michael Wright, Benny Lee Young, Cheryl Lynne Class of 1987 Allen, Lawrence Charles Class of 1988 Andrus, James Arnold Adams, Kevin Henry Austin, Valarie Ruth Allen, Gregory John Banks, Bernard Bennett Barnes, Russell Bembry, Lisa Lee 245 Barsella, Michael Keith George, Oliver Clarence Bernard, Denna Louise Gibson, Kenneth Clifton Branch, Gary D. Gourrier, Troy Michael Brown, James Earl III Gwynn, Adolphus Rene Brown, Kerk Baxtor Hall, Arthur Lean III Bruns, Eric Bouvier Handy, Eric DeAndre Buruus, Norvin Deveril Hargrow, Cynthia Campbell, Hugh Scott Harris, David Kevan Carroll, Albin Bernard Hemmans, John Maxie Jr. Carson, Brian Alexander House, Mark Dorian Clark, Ronald Patrick Jackson, Corwin Fitzgerald Cook, Chris Terrell Jamison, Selwyn Rachon Crawford, Tory Jon Jarmon, Thad Patrick Cushon, Albert Kelker Johnson, Frank Roland Jr. Duncan, Gary Van Jones, Trudy Otelia East, Michael Odell Lacey, Jonathan Roger Evans, Arnold Benny Lattimer, Todd Langston Frye, Walter Dakar E. Lee, Algustus Walton Jr. Gano, Sean Lewis, John Wesley Jr. Gray, Delvakia Lilly, Gerald Elliott Hall, Jo Levern Loggins, Mark Lynwood Ham, Linwod Quentin Jr. Maddox, Lisa Maria Hamilton, David Mark Mathis, Douglas Dwane Hamilton, Karlton McGlothian Jonathan T. Harris, Robert David McRae, William Edward Herring, Ronald D. Montgomery, Damon G. Hodge, Clifford Alexander Nero, David Michael Hopkins, Dennis Cecil Parker, Melvin Frantrell Hotnit, Colin Eugene Parker, Steven Lloyd Hunter, Ian Percy Patterson, Anne Sherrise Jackson, Archie III Peterson, Byron Douglas II Jean-Louise, Davis Jr. Phillips, Mark Anthony Jefferson, Raymond M. III Powell, Darius Anthony Jenkins, Gregory Michael Ramsey, Carl Dewaine Johnson, Charlie Jr. Rayfield, John Charles Magee, Christopher H. Reed, Joseph Oliver III Masters, Monte Maurice Sampson, Kenton Carlo McLendon, Kelvin Dwight Singleton, Tamara Gail Michael, Stephen Leopold Smith, Melody Denise Miller, Gregory Jerome Stubblefield, Lolita Maria Nelson, John Hamilton Talley, James Rodney Nichols, Ernest III Wallace, Vincent Marcellus Noble, Michael Warren Wellington, Deborah A. Nutter, Frederick Ira White, Charles William Jr. Oliver, Eddie III Williams, Maurice LaSalle Overton, David S., III Williams, Robert Leroy, Jr. Patin, Michelle Joy Williamson, Russell M. Porter, Torrance James Wilson, Isiah III Reeves, Kevin Richard Sanks, Warren Craig Class of 1990 Saulny, Edward Degrange Alexander, Humberto Jose Settles, Monica Rose Bailey, Broderick Jerome Smith, Kevin Leo Barnett, Benjamin Uriah Stallworth, William Sam Baskerville, John Cornelius Sumter, Darren Jerod Branch, Cynthia Lynn Toomer, Jeffery Keith Broadous, Hillery John Tuggle, Sherise Lavon Brown, John Mitchell Turner, Morris Anthony Cain, Richard van Webb, Benjamin Earl Donelson, Moir Perez Wells, Leonard Edward Farrar, Albert Franklin Jr. Williams, Charles H. III Felder, Ronald Everett Jr. Woodbury, John Lebaron Flowers, Eric Paul Foster, Melynda Montez Class of 1989 Foye, David Marsel, Jr. Alston, Roy Eugene Gatewood, Leo Thomas III Bell, Michael Darren Glaspie, Bobby Earl Jr. Bowman, George F. Jr. Green, Ronald James Boyd, Earnest Eugene Griffin, Darryl Carl Campbell, Ronald Lewis Gurganus, Tritron R. Carter, Tyno Burnell Heath, Garrett Durand Cheek, Tonya LaShawn Ingles, Augusto Africanus Cleveland, Jeffrey Craig Jackson, Henry Lee II Crosland, Telita Jackson, Louis Myles Jr. DCosta, Joseph Johnson, Bradford Linn Drake, Johathan Todd Johnson, Carol Ann Fletcher, Antonio Manuel Johnson, Gordon Brett Fowler, Christopher Daniel Johnson, Joni Janine Frezell, James Edward Jr. Jones, James Edward Gadson, Gregory Dmitri Jones, Thomas Waldon Gardener, Randie A. Jordan, Sean Christopher Gatling, George Chester Kelley, Jason Earnest 246 Knighten, John Alex II Brundrige, Patrick Douglas Liddell, Theodore Marcus Cass, Calvin Lee Miller, ONeal Chambers, David Phillip Nash, Chauncy Conrad Crenshaw, Reggie Levorn Ndiaye, Magatte Daniels, Geraldine Renee Newman, Bryan Dewayne Delva, Reginald Orrange, James Roscoe III Eikner, Darrell Edwin Pak, Jae Cherl Ellison, Donni Lynn Peebles, Yale Sinclair George, Omuso Dabibi Pineda, Anton Thor Ivan Mora Givens, Edward Wendell Reddix, Robert Nathaniel Glover, Winston Jerrome Reid, Christopher Brian Hall, Ronald Elmer Jr. Savoy, Morrell Kerwin Hamilton, Melton Kristan Scott, John Andre Harris, Lorenzo Seay, Arnold Jentimane, Carlos Alberto Snowden, Louis Junior II Jones, Anthony Michael St. Rose, Richard Patrick King, Marilyn Royce Sa. Stennett, Jacqueline E. Lightfoot, Bernard Jr. Stevens, Kenneth Allen Logan, Antonio Pierre Terrell, Kevin Scott Lowe, Clayton Lamont Thobane, Bruce Nchidzi Mayweather, Michael Thomas, Ryan O'Neal McWilliams, Bryan Leon Tiao, Andy Cheng-Chung Mills, Charlene Westfield, Jeffrey Lamar Mogavero, Gregory R. Williams, Bruce Howard Moore, Eric Thomas Williams, David Eugene Moore, Reginald Leonard Williams, Hugh Richard W. Opiyo, Johnson Ododa Williams, Walter Knight Pasteur, Ernest Leon Jr. Wiills, Elexa Diana Pearson, Vu Le Wilson, Ronald Rea Jr. Pierre, Gravelle L. Jr. Yates, Shannon Kole Porter, Yolanda Renita Rodgers, Frederick A.l Class of 1991 Shinn, James Malcolm Ambercrombie, John Cl. Simon, Michael Shawn Anderson, Jeffrey Glen Simpson, Jeffrey Scott Anglin, Rory Anthony Smith, Christopher A. Baker, Lewis Demiles Smith, Michael Leviel Ball, Michael Andre Soko, Chikunkha Baxter, Derrick Emil Talley, David Leroy Berry, Kevin Lee Tharps, Elisa Marie Brown, Keith Eric John H. Alexander was the second black to graduate from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. Cadet B. O. Davis, Jr., a graduate of the Military Academy in 1936, followed his famous father in establishing an outstanding military career. 247 Thomas, Anthony A. Jr. Smith, Frank Henry Jr. Topping, Damion Odelle Smith, Gregory Karl Turner, Brian Charles Smith, John Anthony Washington, Monique Y. Smith, Michael Anthony Wheatfall, Walter Lee Smith, Torrence Jae White, Michael Renard Swalve, David Andrew Williams, Jonathan K. Tancinco, Ramon Agustin Woodson, Todd Lamart Taylor, Darryl Lynwood Thomas, Callian Maurice Class of 1992 Turner, Yolanda Rachelle Allen, Reginald Vaughn, Clifton Floyd Barnes, Troy Donnell Verzola, Eric Durante Boyd, Stacey Lanel Wade, Chaka Luthuli Brame, Tracey LaDawn Walker, Kevin Andre Brown, Eric Lamar Wallace, Nathaniel F. Brown, Ivan Ellerty Ward, Kermit Demetrius Carruth, Kevin Wesley Westbrook, Robert Mark Carter, Kedran Juanrez Whitley, Larry L. Jr. Ching, Edward Yusam Whitten, Wilbert Eugene Chivhima, Ennocent Williams, Myreon Clark, Eugene Maurice Williams, Tristan Rimbaud Clark, Kevin Burns Wyatt, Desi Levon Coard, Pearsall C. II Young, Ericka Anne Coleman, Larry Leon Jr. Young, Peter James Jr. Connors, Jason Dean Davidson, Paul Gerard Class of 1993 Davis, Antonio Cyril Adams, Lamar David Davis, Toya Jeneen Addison, Calvin Lorenzo Dawkins, Mark Alexander Allen, Derrick Tyronne Demby, Harold Craig Allen, Joseph Devohn Dickson, Ezell Jr. Baker, Berkley Adam Ellis, Deborah Marie Branch, Schawn Lamont Fergerson, Ricky Lee Byrant, James Kenneth Frieson, Lakeisha Renee Buffington, Charles W. Gadson, Jein Kenyatta Christopher, George Jr. Gilmore, Exter Garfield III Cobb, Anthony Duane Gowdy, Angela Elaine Crawford, Jacob E. III Gray, Sharette Kirksten Davidson, Michael L. Greene, Quincy Justin Davis, Kenton Troy Hammond, Roderick James Davis, Reuben A. Harris, Richard Earl II Davis, Robert William Hawkins, Albert Lee III Dunham, Landy Donnell Hawkins, Shawn Lee Durant, James C., III Hawks, Kwasi Lumumba Egbe, Joseph Hollister, Carl Jerome Fant, Phillip Eugene Jackson, Latonya Cherise Fraser, Dwight Elliott Jeffers, William Davis Gordon, Aaron Philip Jenkins, Sean Edward Goredema, Nimrod M. Jennings, James Grant, Norman Derek Jones, Marquel Leron Greene, Gaylord Wayne Lain, Darrell Jason Griffin, Frederick London, David Tshombe Griffin, Satonyia Maria Loyd, Sidney Jerome Hagwood, Marvin Richard Mack, Kenneth Leon Hardy, Lisa Maria Marsh, Patrique Antonio Hedgspeth, Keith Reginald McConnell, Matthew A. Hunt, Dhania Jouita McGill, Darrick Lamar Jackson, Marvin K. McKenzie, Benjamin D. Jenkins, Harold A. III McMillian, William Henry Jenkins, Shawn Terrell McNair, Fitzgerald Francis Johns, Tina Loretta Marie Mitchell, Korey Otis Johnson, Shannon R. Morse, Reginald Paul Knox, Jerome Christopher Mosley, Dewey Alexander Lacy, Willie James Jr. Noel, Michael Eugene Leassear, Leonard Andre Oliver, Edrian MacMaster, Alex Nganga Patten, Jacqueline Latanya Magee, Oscar Lyle Peay, Isaac Bernard III Mangolini, Joseph Victor Penn, Lawrence Edward III Manning, William Olee Pierce, Justin Earle Martins, Kofo A. Powell, Angela Patricia Mathis, Thomas Pregana, Edward Akamine Mayer, Christopher T. Rawles, Stephen Patrick McKindra, Alex B., Jr. Roberson, Aaron David McNeill, John Demart Santos, Christopher Neves Miller, Kenneth Jerome Shim, Edward Woosup Morris, Bryan D. Shinb, Yong Myung Morris, Darrin Andrew Sibale, Paul Nickens, Charles Maurice Serleaf, Fombah Teh Perera, Johann Anthony Smith, Andrew Fitzgerald Peters, Dwight Jerome Jr. Smith, Arlen Lavon Polk, Davina Smith, Corniculus Bonifay Roberts, Aldolphus S. 248 Robertson, Veronica R. Shaw, Desmond Jamal Smith, Andresa Smith, Leumas Jahdunamis Soucy, Todd C. Stenson, Framar Lebert Stewart, Jomo Kenyatta St. Mary, Edward C. III Taylor, Alfred Anthony Vaughn, Joseph Jeffrey Wesley, Lawrence Isiah White, Demetrius Donyelle Woods, Christopher Lee Wright, Timothy Darnell Various photos courtesy of U.S. Military Academy 249 Photo corutesy of the U.S. Military Academy 250 The United States Naval Academy Annapolis, Maryland Naval Academy emblem Cadets at the Naval Academy The education of naval officers in the fledgling US Navy of the late 1700's was based upon the system used by the British Navy - practical experience. Young men were appointed by the President or the Secretary of the navy, upon recommendation of members of Congress. Designated as midshipmen, the term originally used to designate an experienced seaman stationed amid ships to relay orders fore and aft, they were essentially apprenticed aboard ship to learn their trade by doing. A more formal system of education was recommended by John Paul Jones in 1783. He proposed an academy in each American naval yard to teach mathematics and mechanics to young officers prior to their obtaining practical experience aboard ship. The Continental Navy was abolished after the American Revolution, however, and his proposal was never seriously considered. When the Navy was reestablished in 1794, the question of officer education arose once more. Alexander Hamilton proposed a combined military education system with a basic course at West Point and specialized schools for engineers and artillery, infantry and cavalry, and the navy to follow. His proposal was rejected. In the early 1800's a chaplain was placed aboard each ship with the added responsibility to teach writing, mathematics and navigation to the midship men. The argument for a permanent shore school was continuously raised and rejected. It took the dual shocks of a mutiny aboard a U.S, brig, which was planned and conducted by midshipmen who were then tried and hung aboard ship in 1842, and the introduction of steam power, which revolutionized naval strategy, to create an atmosphere conductive to the establishment of a permanent, shore- based educational system. In 1845, Secretary of the Navy George Bancroft, using a combination of bureaucratic manuevering and political influence, established a Naval School for the more efficient training of young naval officers. In 1850-51, Congress recognized the Secretary's fait accompli and funded the Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. Fifty-six midshipmen at- 251 tended the first class. During the Civil War, the instructors and midshipmen were moved to Newport, Rhode Island to more secure facilities but they were returned to Annapolis after the war. James Conyers, a young black man, was appointed to the Academy in September 1872, by his Congressman from South Carolina. According to contemporary accounts, Conyers' appointment hit the Academy like a "bombshell." Controversy immediately erupted as midshipmen, faculty, and the interested general public debated the issue of his attendance. The question, as seen by one historian, was "whether or not a negro could take his place in the hierarchy of a warship and secure not only the necessary recognition from his immediate associates, but be able to maintain the discipline and enforce the respect incidental thereto from the crew." Although most of the faculty were Civil War veterans and had fought for emancipation, few had anticipated the presence of a black at the Academy so soon after the war. In addition, hazing among the midshipmen had become a major problem and many feared that Conyers would be tormented by his fellow students. Although some incidences did occur, Conyers bore them stoically. Eventually, however, he was found to be apparently deficient in two courses, mathematics and French. He resigned in 1873. In September 1873, a second black midshipmen, Alonzo McClennan, was appointed from South Carolina. He resigned in 1874, after only six months at the Academy. Henry E . Baker, Jr. was the third black to enter the Academy in September 1874, but he was dismissed for disciplinary reasons within two months. A black was not to enter the Academy again until 1936. Charles F. Bolden, a 1968 graduate of the Naval Academy, was a test pilot before becoming an astronaut. 252 In June 1936, James Johnson was appointed to the Naval Academy from Illinois. He attended classes for only eight months and then resigned for reasons of poor health. George Trivers entered the Academy in 1937, but he also resigned - this time within a month of his appointment - for reasons of poor grades in deportment and English. These two resignations led to protests by black organizations. They claimed that Johnson had been discriminated against in the hazing he received from fellow midshipmen and in the grades that he received from the white faculty. The mission of the U.S. Naval Academy is to "develop midshipmen morally, mentally, and physically and to imbue them with the highest ideals of duty, honor and loyalty in order to provide graduates who are dedicated to a Midshipman Wesley A. Brown career of naval service and have potential for future development in mind and character to assume the highest responsibilities of command, citizenship and government. Many critics suggested that these ideals were not being met in the admission and treatment of black midshipmen. In June of 1945, Representative Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. of New York appointed Wesley A. Brown of Washington, D.C. to the Academy. Brown, born in Maryland, had attended school in the District where he was encouraged by his teachers at Dunbar High School to seek a military career. While at the Academy, Brown participated in sports (tennis and track) and clubs (German, chess, and photography) in addition to his academic pursuits. During his plebe (first) year, Brown experienced severe harrassment from some upper classmen and was continually upbraided and given demerits on the slightest provocation. Gradually, however, he earned the acceptance of his class mates and later stated that he had received impartial treatment from his instructors. He became the first black and the 20,699th midshipman to graduate in June 1949. He eventually retired from the Navy as a Lieutenant Commander. Lawrence C. Chambers, the second black to graduate from the Naval Academy in 1952, retired a Rear Admiral. The Class of 1984, which was admitted in June 1980, contained 15 percent racial and ethnic minorities and the Naval Academy is actively recruiting increased numbers of minorities. While only 35 blacks graduated from the Academy in the period 1949-1969, 289 graduated during the years 1970-1980 and con- 253 stituted almost 3 percent of all graduates during that period. Other minorities comprised an additional 2.2 percent of all graduates in that ten year period. As of April 1981, there were 550 minority midshipmen out of 4391 in the entire student body, of that number, 174 were black men and 24 were black women. Women were first admitted to the Naval Academy in 1976 when eighty-one women entered. As of April 1981, there were 276 women at the Academy or 67.3 percent of the Brigade; of that number, twenty-four were black. Janie L. Mines of Aiken, South Carolina was the first and only black woman to enter the Academy in 1976. A member of the Navy Junior ROTC unit at her high school, Mines had decided upon a military career in the Marines. However, in 1978 she knocked her kneecap out of place and was no longer able to pass the Marine physical. A political science major at the Academy, Mines also held leadership positions as squad leader, midshipman drill officer, and regimental adjutant. Her status as the first black women at the Academy and her leaderhip positions made her a natural role model and informal counselor for the other women. Though her own experience was difficult, Mines felt that her most valuable lesson at the Academy was to learn to deal with the system, even though it is often a disillusioning process and progress is always slow. In 1980, Mines became the first black woman to graduate from the Naval Academy and after training as a supply officer, Ensign Mines was assigned to supervise three dining halls at the Naval Training Center in Orlando, Florida. Janie Mines' sister Gwen joined the Academy in 1977 where she was one of three blacks in an entering group of sixty women. She also majored in political science and served as battalion supply officer and captain of the Academy's fencing team. Gwen Mines graduated in 1981 and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the Marine Corps. 254 BLACK GRADUATES AND CLASS LIST OF UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY 1949-1993 Class of 1949 Lucas, R. G. Brown, Wesley A. Simmons, D. F. Class of 1952 Class of 1969 Chambers, L. C. Carr, E. F. Jones, F. E. Class of 1953 Taylor, R. R. Class of 1970 Freeman, J. B. Class of 1954 Greene, E. L. Railford, J. D. Henry, B. A. Roberts, M. C. Class of 1955 Watson, A. J. Gregg, L. P. Williams, L. V. Class of 1956 Class of 1971 Baudi, H. S. Collier, C. M. Sechrest, E. A. Porter, J. F. Shaw, H. M. Jr. Class of 1957 Jamison, V. L. Class of 1972 Slaughter, K. W. Burnette, E. A. Coleman, A. B. Class of 1958 Crump, W. L. Jr. Fennell, G. M. Jones, N. M. Keaser, L. W. Class of 1959 Lovely, E. Bruce, M. D. Mason, M. T. Bush, W. S. McMillian, J. A. Clark, M. E. Rucks, C. H. Powell, M. E. Smith, E. M. Straton, E. M. Class of 1961 Tindall, J. S. Byrd, W. Z. Johnson, M. Jr. Class of 1973 Shelton, J. A. Calhoun, L. W. Caliman, K. H. Class of 1962 Campbell, J. H. Jackson, J. T. Evans, W. G. McCray, D. Faust, H. L. Jackson, J. E. Class of 1963 Jones, L. W. Newton, R. C. Kennard, W. M. Samuels, R. G. Class of 1964 Shockley, R. L. Jones, W. C. Watts, R. D. McDonald, J F. Jr. Young, E. C. Prout, P. M. Thomas, B. F. Class of 1974 Corpin, O. D. Class of 1965 Dunn, K. D. Carter, S. J. Jr. Jolly, E. L. Grayson, F. F. Jr. Kirk, F. L. Reason, J. P. Minor, T. E. Montgomery, D. Class of 1967 Raisin, T. E. Huey, C. W. Robinson, C. Tzomes, C. A. Tate, J. D. Class of 1968 Class of 1975 Bolden, C. F. Jr. Ardine, J. E. Clark, W. S. Jr. Bailey, C. E. 255 Everet, W. M. Class of 1977 Graves, B. E. Adair, S. A. Grover, R. O. Almeida, J. M. Hampton, M. L. Anderson, K. Hargrove, C. Bonner, D. R. Harris, W. M. Booker, C. B. Jackson, D. E. Booker, R. L. Jackson, J. T. Brinkley, R. W. Lawson, H. Bruce, P. J. Merrell, W. Burns, M. W. Miller, K. E. Byrd, G. L. Montgomery, W. J. Caesar, J. S. Nollie, T. C. Caldwell, R. L. Robinson, J. W. Campbell, A. L. Russell, D. Clay, J. L. Washington, M. B. Cook, D. Watson, L. J. Davis, P. L. E. Williams, R. B. Deana, L. E. Willis, C. J. Dory, C. E. Ellison, W. L. Jr. Class of 1976 Faulkner, R. M. Bass, R. G. Floyd, M. L. Boyd, C. C. Jr. Foster, A. P. Brown, C. A. Franklin, D. E. Clark, A. W. Jr. Freeman, D. W. Cole, C. Garcia, B. A. Curtis, D. C. Gilmore, E. J. Davis, N., Jr. Goodrum, R. E. Dennis, J. I. Graham, D. F. Ellis, R. L. Gray, S. G. Epps, J. B. Hallman, C. Ford, E. Jr. Handy, C. D. Franklin, D. W. Hardy, J. T. Jr. Giron, B. A. Harrington, J. Halton, E. S. Hill, M. L. Harris, W. J. Hithon, C. J. Hicks, G. R. Ivey, C. G. Holmes, E. I. Jackson, L. Jr. Howard, R. Lee, S. Jr. Jenkins, G. Lockett, L. V. Lassiter, I. W. Lockley, J. Leonard, K. E. Long, A. IV Liscomb, J. C. McNair, E. R. Littlejohn, G. A. McNeil, R. A. Miles, D. A. Mitchell, R. V. Mitchell, R. I. Nacoste, P. J. Moore, G. Ray, D. D. Owens, I. H. Rogers, M. L. Paulding, O. Roxe, M. V. Payton, L. Jr. Sapp, J. K. Pritchett, R. R. Sawyer, G. R. Queen, G. A. Schoolfield, D. J. Reddix, M. C. Seldon, R. W. Sears, W. T. Smith, J. W. Sharperson, C. H. Station, G. V. Smith, J. B. Jr. Trass, K. R. Sparks, J. E. Jr. Tucker, M. Stevens, M. K. Turner, E. A. Walton, D. F. Valentine, J. Wouman, E. D. Washington, V. L. Wright, E. J. 256 Class of 1978 Johnson, A. J. Jr. Abernethy, T. S. Johnson, M. D. Anderson, D. E. Jones, H. Andre, C. A. Jones, L. H. Jr. Bramlett, L. Jones, S. A. Carter, B. W. Lewis, W. D. Cato, A. M. Martin, W. B. Cook, D. Massie, W. R. Crawford, T. McCoy, L. J. Dyer, M. A. McKenzie, S. S. Fields, M. H. Miller, A. B. Flanagan, G. Monroe, G. A. Goodman, R. O. Jr. Norgrove, K. E. Guillory, V. G. Smith, A. R. Haney, C. E. D. Wilder, C. R. Harris, B. F. Wise, J. E. Johnson, M. R. Womack, K. Johnston, M. R. Woodward, C. C. Jr. Jones, S. E. Jubert, G. A. Class of 1980 King, M. E. Atkins, M. Knight, R. L. Barnhill, L. Marchant, B. F. Bradley, E. Meadows, F. J. Brown, G. V. Miller, L. E. Burks, L. J. Moore, C. E. Carmichael, B. Mosley, E. K. Character, D. Newby, L. D. Clark, C. B. Perry, C. A. Clark, I. R. Jr. Peterson, J. C. Jr. Coker, M. Jr. Prince, L. O. Jr. Colvin, J. T. Reddick, M. P. Jr. Cooper, S. L. Redvict, P. C. Cornish, B. F. Robinson, W. L. Dancy, J. G. Saddler, M. R. Daniel, F. Scott, R. W. Dennis, D. C. Sears, M. E. Figgins, R. L. Stallings, J. b. Gay, E. L. Taylor, R. R. Grooms, B. E. Thompson, L. B. Hodge, R. R. Williams, A. Jackson, B. K. Williams, M. G. Jr. Jiles, A. W. Winns, A. L. Johnson, R. Wood, D. L. Johnson, R. Woods, H. M. Josia, A. H. Wray, K. L. Mack, T. A. Young, O. W. Manns, E. McCauley, L. H. Class of 1979 Meyers, C. L. Adams, J. Jr. Mines, J. L. Allen, M. T. Minor, I. L. Ballard, W. W. Mosley, A. S. Beam, D. A. Nemecek, R. A. Berry, E. C. Paul, W. Brooks, S. E. Raymond, D. K. Burrell, A. K. Shorts, V. Cousin, D. G. Smith, B. E. Darring, P. L. Smith, V. C. Gibson, M. A. Sneed, M. Green, N. B. Thompson, C. Jackson, K. L. Thornton, C. 257 Trass, R. E. Hayes, Vical. E. Vonlipsey, R. K. Hazzard, Donna M. Walker, J. L. Howard, Michaelle J. White, T. Johnston, Michael J. Williams, N. Leisch, Jody L. Wilson, C. A. Malcolm, Michael W. McClain, Joseph S. Class of 1981 McLeod, Myles, L. Abernathy, R. Meyers, Edward Bailey, P. E. Morris, Michael Barnes, A. P. Nobles, Walter E. Brownlee, E. Odom, Arthaneous A. Butler, R. A. Palmer, David K. Coker, T. Parker, Carl T. Curry, B. Reagans,Elliott Denkler, G. Rogers, William III Evans, W. T. Simmons, Jon Myron Gainer, C. Terrell, Wayne A. Green, L. R. Tondu, Jennifer Gross, K. J. Watson, Rory K. Harness, K. N. Wiggins, Clarence A. Herred, A. L. Williams, Anthony Howard, A. M. Wimbush, Nelson W. II Jackson, B. D. Yelder, Christopher E. Jackson, R. C. III Knock, J. A. Class of 1983 Lee, F. A. Alexander, Catherine D. McCree, V. Barclift, Michael R. McElroy, D. M. Battle, John Clayborne Mines, G. Bedell, Kevin Fredric Nixon, M. Blackwell, Jacqueline Oliver, B. C. Blake, James A. Pace, G. H. Brannon, Troy E. Perez, M. C. Butler, Christopher L. Reaves, J. C. Barter, George R. Redden, S. D. Clark, Jerome A. Ricks, D. L. Coles, James L. III Roberts, W. Crockett, Jerry M. Swoope, A. M. Deberry, Dennis Taylor, R. L. Edmondson, Michael J. Thomas, A. A. Fears, George Michael Tolbert, K. C. Finley, Julian G. Ware, R. E. Gatson, Darryl Keith Weems, R. A. Hale, Kevin T. Hester, Gina Loraine Class of 1982 Hicks, Warren T. Banks, Mark E. Hundley, Herbert Baptiste, Barry Jackson, Eric Keith Batchlor, Charles D. Jackson, Stephen Mark Bates, Andre Yannick James, Kenneth Angelo Baugh, Kevin A. Jones, Eugene Weston Bennett, Donald C. Lakins, Darryl David Butts, William S. Mackay, Leo Sidney Jr. Carodine, Charles L. Martin, Robert Cason Cole, Patricia McClusky, Kenneth W. Davis, Noel M. McCoy, Angelo A. Dixon, Dominic S. Neil, Franklin N. Jr. Ferrell, Theodore J. Miller, Kevin Lavord Gay, William H. Mitchell, Troy Michael Goodson, Earl F. Moore, Richard A. Gray, Alison M. Posey, Brian Wenford Reed, Michael R. 258 Roane, Elmer W. Jr. Adkins, Lemonte Andre Rupp, John Alexander, Lewis B. Jr. Scissum, Adolph C. Atkinson, David Smith, Henry C. Betton, Christopher R. Smith, Leonard Jr. Biggs, Jeffrey S. Thames, Tyrone M. Bryan, Curtis E. Jr. Tyree, William D. III Bugg, Lois Wallington, Joseph T. Burke, Christopher K. Waye, Reginald B. Bush, Rani Dale Williams, Leo W. II Coleman, Austin Hughes Williams, Yolanda Y. Daniel, Jeffrey Allen Wilson, Joe David Jr. Davis, Bruce Gary Wilson, Kenneth Dejoie, Bartel Jacques Wrice, Jesse Edward Jr. Dillard, Mark Vincent Figgins, Gerald Dale Class of 1984 Flowers, Michael L. Abbott, Denise Michelle Gex, Geoffrey David Andrews, Jeffrey Alan Graham, Michael Ray Andrews, Tae Wan Greenwood, Michael D. Baker, Beverly Muriel Hacker, Bruce Laurence Brown, Conrad Nelson Jr. Harris, Paul Jr. Brown, Jeffrey Darryl Henry, Frederick D. Clayton, Eric Von Hines, Joseph Emanuel Curbeam, Robert Lee Jr. Johnson, Oreste M. Darden, Ronald Karl Jones, Warren R. Jr. Davis, Jacqueline Renee Keyes, Warren F. Fegan, Frederick Morris Lawton, William E. Jr. FIaggs, Moreatha Yvette Maddox, Mario Renara Fortune, Idean Josephine H. Marsh, Laurencc A. Gaines, Leonard Salmon McCallum, Napoleon Hosch, Willie H. McKinney, Roberta V. Howard, James Heyward Melvin, Barry Stephen Howard, Kevin Thomas Mills, Charlie H. III Hudson, Derek Dewitt Mimms, Bernard F. Jones, Michael Lawrence Moore, David Joseph Kizzee, Carlos Perry Moore, Michael Thomas Law, Leitia Lynne Morant, Kevin Manning, Cameron Alan Nolan, Charles H. Jr. Marshall, Lawrence Eugene Parham, Thomas D. McDonald, Ronald Keith Phelps, Peter M. McKinney, Billy Lynn Phillip, Lester S. Neal, Sherman, Evon Pierce, Carlton Newhouse, Darryl Brian Pleasant, Mervin A Nixon, Randall Lamar Rhoe, Reginald M. Peoples, Gerald Keith Richmond, Phillip Paul Price, Lenny Francis Studevan, Colin Rasbury, Stanley Okoye Tolliver, David F. Shepherd, Michael Andrew Wallace, Eric K. Skinner, Steven Gregory Williams, Byron A. Smith, David Hanson Williams, Steven Craig Smith, Jonathan Jerome Stevens, Monica Class of 1986 Taylor, James Jr. Allen, Averett Marion Tillman, Willard Jr. Allen, Michael Anthony Turner, Jean-Francois Atkinson, Craig Alexis Walton, Terrance Bernard Barnes, Kenneth Marion Wilson, Joslyn Grant Jr. Broussard, Gregory L. Wilson, Woodrow III Brown, Kevin Joseph Wright, Darin Claude Bustamante, George A. Carpenter, Jerry A. Class of 1985 Carroll, John W. III Adams, Thomas Lee III 259 Crawley, Albert Jr. Williams, Robert Dampier, Louis H. Wilson, Jesse Alphonzo Dixon, Derrick Lamont Wright, Grover Lee Jr. Dooley, John Stuart EchoIs, Eddy Lewis Jr. Class of 1987 Edwards, Douglas Todd Armstrong, John C. Ellison, Aaron Sanders Berry, Anthony Ralph Fowler, Stephen W. Black, Kenneth I. Gray, Robert Lee Bond, Phillip S. Harris, Linzell Laray Burgess, Beth I. Herring, Michael Ramon Burgess, James L. Hines, Joseph Emanuel Campbell, Nicholas B. Hitchinson, Albert Lee Coker, Anthony S. Hubbard, Bryan D. Cooke, Rabon Elton Jackson, Edward Keith Council, George Horace Jackson, Kyle Andre Curry, Ronald, Jr. Jackson, Terrance S. Curry, Sean Cecil Johnson, Joseph Wade Dove, John Calvin Jr. Jones, Marius Bennett Dugger, Lazaurnel C. Jones, Sarah Kazuko Fennell, David Alan Jordan, Anthony D. Fletcher, Kirklin C. King, Eugene Wallace Flewellen, Demetrius L. Lawrence Lenard M. Fuller, John V. Lloyd, Roger K. L. Garrett, Stephen C. Lucas, Clifton F. Gary, Francesca D. Lupton, Michael F. Grey, Anthony J. Maye, Larry Harris, Ronald James McDonald, Jonathan L. Hawkins, Albert Wayner McElrey, Terry Shawn Haynes, John B. McFadden, Howard Dale Henry, Patrick J. McMichael, Gregory Herbert, Joseph L. III McQueen, Eric Steven Higgs, Ronald L. Jr. Minter, Gary Wayne Hollinger, Anthony Norris, George L. Jr. Hughes, Arthur Jr. Pierce, Ivan C. Jett, Willie Lee Poinsette, Raymond M. Johnson, Christopher E. Powers, Zack Jr. Johnson, Theodore R. Jr. Radcliffe, Richard R. Jones, Michael Allen Reed, James Dudley II Joseph, Bernard A. Reitan, Paula Julie Lindsay, Dwayne Render, Frank W. III Littlejohn, Stuart M. Sharp, Ronald Douglas Magee, Edward O. Jr. Smith, Thomas Marcus Malloy, Terence P. Smith, Tonya Rene Manhertt, Carey M. Spears, Mark Alan McBeth, Vincent D. Stallings, Herry McKinley, Marcellus P. Tabb, Robert Wolfgang Merritt, Howard F. Thames, Joseph Rufus Miles, Mary Alice Thompkins, Geselle D. Mobley, Albert W. Toler, Arthur Douglass Moore, Wallace F. Totty Earl, Jr. Morris, Donald K. Turner, Ingrid Marie Nickels, Trent Demareo Turner, Tracy Elayne Parchment, Alfred B. Wade, Spencer Allen Richmond, Virgadeon L. Wakefield, Bryce Edwin Rideau, Errol E. Jr. Wells, Royce Anthony Robinson, David M. Wharton, Richard G. Jr. Robinson, Jyceline Williams, Daniel J. Ross, Wendell Williams, Gregg B. K. Rouse, Ronald E. Williams, Michael Sims, Dwayne Edward Smith, Michael Kevin 260 Smith, Morris Turner, Bryan Anthony Spaulding, Libby Jo Union, Craig David Thomas, Gina Eileen Wadley, Rodney Charles Travis, Pastula D. Wallace, Vernon Lavell Tyner, Jerry D. Water, Kyle Lemont Vanlue, Gordon Maurice White, Robert Lewis Vaughn, Leroy Darrel Williams, Glenn Neil Watkins, Daryl Vaughn Williams, Kevin A. Wilson, Frank Van Williams, Varanda L. Wilson, John Gregory Wilson, Karen I Wilson, Peter Stephen Wingo, Harry Matthew Woolfolk, Eric Michael Wright, Anthone R. Wright, Matice J. Class of 1988 Yeldell, Harold D. Albritton, David Amnstrong, Leonard D. Class of 1989 Artis, Kennon Anthony Adams, Charlton Peter Baker, Deadrick D. Alexander, Randy Eugene Bennett, Dawn Louis Anderson, Darryl Christian Brown, Curtis Leo Archer, Luther, Jr. Brown, Patrick Winston Barber, Michael Renard Bryant, Richard Benard Billingslea, Willie Demoore ClauseIl, David Allen Brandt, James Allen Jr. Core, Hideo Umezawa Britton, Brian Jassea Coston, Derrick James Burton, Aaron Levon Dismuke, Jerry Bennett Campbell, Kevin Bruce Dunbar, Jonathan Paul Campbell, Marvin Gerard Dupree, John Calvin Jr. Casey, David Preston Fisher, William Ronald Clark, Sherolyn Yvonne Forte, Rodney Bruce Clay, Orin Brett Gonsalves, John F. Jr. Coombs, Corey Willis Grayson, Roger Sherald Cornwall, Harold Richard Green, Christina Renee Davis, Craig Jonathan Greene, Michael Rodney Derricho, Johnny Matthew Hall, Myron Louis Duvall, John Albert III Hikmat, James Wahid Jr. Edwards, Dondi Hitt, David Alexander Fuller, Derek Aaron Irby, Curtis Michael Garvin, Derrick Eric Isom, Roger Gerome Gay, Riccardio David Johnson, Roger Francis Gilbert, Aaron Edward Jones, Mark Wilson Glasper, Eddie Lee Jr. Kirkland, Jeffrey C. Green, Christina Renee Mann, Charisse Maria Griffin, Patrick S. Mann, James Allen Grimes, Kenneth Rodell Owens, James Kent Hammond, Terrence Eugene Payton, Howard Jr. Harris, Krista Preer, Cassondra Lasha Hinton, Pierre Robert Jr. Rhodes, Leslie, Jr. Holland, Monica Kim Richardson, Claude Horton, Anthony Curtis Richmond, Rosalind J. Howard, Reginald Maurice Saunders, Troy James, Marshall Shumpert Simmons, Gregory L. Jones, Robert Joseph Smith, Darryl Leverne Jones, Ronald Fitzgerald Smith, Jesse Derek Jr. Jordan, Carl Christopher Sparrock, Robert C. Lampkin, Darryl Stephens, Truman Jr. Leflore, Michael Rena Stokes, Andre Edward Lemieux, Tawayla Mynette Tabb, Michael Eldridge Mann, James Allen Thomas, Arnold Dwayne Martin, Eugene Tivola III Thomas, Wilburn Earl Mathis, Gerald Holmes Jr. Trigg, Christopher Franklin Merritt, Byron George 261 Miller, Joe Earl Jr. Dickinson, Larry Mills, Don Arthur Douglas, Todd A. Moore, Charles Lee Jr. Edwards, Richard Morlan, Michelle Dyan Edwards, Robert L. Muse, Roland Siegfried Elliott, Mark C. Parker, Paul T. Ford, Kevin A. Peltier, Albert Ronald Fowler, Kimberly Peoples, Emil Lynn Frazier, Darrin J. Phillips, Timothy Brian Frederick, Calvin Powers, Patrick James Fuller, Rita Joy Prather, Craig Steven Fullwod, Daron D. Robertson, John Leonard Garner, Andrew S. Rogers, Douglas Allen Gibbs, Todd A. Sawyer, Michael Ernest Graham, Gerald C. Simmons, Jeffrey Wayner Griffea, Tanya L. Simmons, William Ellis Jr. Guillory, Darrin Smith, Calvin Forsythe Hitt, Christopher Smith, John Henry Holley, Darrell M. Smith, Kenneth Warren Honesty, Carter L. Smith, Joseph Andre Hopkins, Byron L. Snead, William Bruce Ita, Eyo Eyo Spencer, Yessic Cozay III Jefferson, S.J. II Stephenson, Donna Marie Johnson, Aaron L. Summers, Victoria Susan Johnson, Aaron T. Triplett, William Melvin Johnson, Marc D. Tucker, Barbara Diane Jones, John Wayne Turner, Derric Todd Jones, William C. Wade, Joseph Fitzgerald Keith, Brian L. Warren, Jay Allen Knight, George D. Williams, Anthony Curtis Leverette, Glen S. Williams, Johnathan Rapier Lewis, James A. Willie, Clarence Earl Jr. Lupton, Steven T. Wingfield, Theodore Vernon II Mackey, Kelly E. Womack, Carol June Malveaux, Eugene Woodson, John Kenneth Mayfield, Todd A. Meyers, Carla M. Class of 1990 Mortin, Darren V. Anglin, Anthony J. Vellums, Davida Y. Armstrong, Vonda Parker, Wayne A. Bell, Quintin L. Parran, Gregory A. Blackwelder, B. A. Perry, Vera M. Bond, Joseph C. Philpott, Alan D. Bradford, Terry L. Powell, John Ward Bradley, James O. Prince, Theodore Brown, Andre D. Proctor, John A. Brown, Kevin M. Rawlings, Valerie Brown, Rodney T. Reasons, Joseph P. Burbage, Aletha Rochon, Everette Burns, Michael L. Rutherford, S. M. Burroughs, M. D. Scruggs, Charles Byrd, Michael A. Sermons, Horace J. Campbell, P. C. Smith, Andre L. Cardinal, L. Lucia Solomon, Ronaldo Cavananugh, Brian Spencer, Juan M. Clark, Doranea L. Straw, C. C. Clark, Kenneth Stroud, Andre Clarke, Wilburn A. Wilson, Edward L. Cook, Charles L. Worthy, Tanya L. Coston, Darren M. Davis, Ronald K. Class of 1991 Devine, Andreas Adae, Nama Bexah 262 Barber, Kenneth S. Williams, Keith Bennett, Roderick Williams, Neil Brinston, Ashton C. Wilson, William L. Brooks, Ronald O. Woodard, Brian T. Brown, William M. Wynn, Kenneth T. Bruce, Anthony Young, Marcus M. Campbell, Alyce A. Campbell, Carmen Class of 1992 Cash, Eric Bell, Corey A. Cheairs, Rose B. Bragg, Mark A. Cleveland, M. H. Brown, Kenneth W. Covington, Eric Burnett, Timika L. Davidson, Isaac G. Cameron, Perry Davis, Dwayne M. Clark, Alexander P. Davis, Marc J Conway, Joseph L. Davis, Melyvn M. Cottrell, Ricky Dawson, Jerry Coward, Roderick L. Delane, Alton D. Curry, Jan J. Douglass, Kip S. Davis, Harold T. Dunley, John M. Davis, Michael A. Ewing, Paul K. Dillard, Stanley P. II Finley, Kenneth Powell, Kevin A. Forman, Shawn K. Edmonds, Nelson Jr. Frye, Christopher Fox, Johnny S. III Fuller, Keith A. Goodson, Terek S. Garrett, Corey A. Grant, Timothy Gibson, Raymond P. Greene, Michael E. Graham, C. Bertram Ha, Ying Jr. Graham, Juan O. Haley, Vincent F. Green, Brian Harper, Baraka I Hackerson, Jason Hatcher, Laura R. Harrell, Jay C. Hinton, Kerry P. Harris, Erik C. Jacobs, William Harris, Kevin M. James, Tracey N. Haynie, Demetrius Johnson, Byron L. Hosue, Paul H., Jr. Johnson, Judson E. Howry, Ernest A. Jones, David E. Johnson, E. Mayell Jones, Destinie A. Jones, Ricky Lee Jones, Malachi B. Jr. Jorgenson, Jason Kearney, Brent A. Kirkland, Andrew Kennedy, Robert Jr. Love, Larry Frank King, Reginald T. Matthews, Walker Lavender, James A. May, Jerome David Mansfield, Valerie E. McMee, Larry D. Marshall, Everett S. III McIntosh, Gary McDaniel, Jeffrey A. Moses, John A. Mitchell, James A. Jr. Pace, Jason Montgomery, Adrian Q. Pearson, Raymond Paige, Andrew J. Sr. Reddick, Edward P. Palmore, Malcom K. Schulter, Scott A Patterson, Pickens A. III Simmons, Torrence Paceo, James W. III Sims, Deric J. Peterson, Dale A. Stallings, Shelia Porter, Kevin F. TerreIl, Harold A. Purifoy, Rodney R. Upson, Kelvin L. Reed, Marvin Wakefield, Paul F. Riley, Christopher G. Wilks, Keith Roberts, John M. Williams, Andre M. Sessions, Theodore Williams, Gregory Short, Sean E. Slade, Acie T. III 263 Smith, Derrick J. Hand, Terrence E. Smith, Jason A. Haynes, Ernest E. III Smith, Steven T. Heron, Winston A. Jr. Terry, Bonita E. Hilton, Adam Y. Thompson, Christopher D. Huckaby, Darren L. Thompson, James L. III Jack, Jason H. Turner, Sean A. Jenkins, Byron E. Walker, Alphonso A. Jones, James E. Jr. Walker, Samuel E. Jr. Jones, John Wheatfall, Marcine M. Lancaster, Paul L. III White, Troy T. Lasalle, Devin T. Williams, Joel H. Lewis, Kelvin C. Williams, Kimberly A. Maddox, Gregory, P. Wynn, Michael J. Mangrum, Stan M. Yancy, William M. Mbuthia, Arthur S. Sr. McGowan, Eric J. Class of 1993 McMillon, Chester L. Abraham, Arnoux Meilleur, Derik S. Adams, Steven A. Morris, David T. Allen, James E. Moultrie, Alni N. Alleyne, Jason Muldrow, Thomas A. Jr. Austin, Kevin L. Nash, William Jr. Bailey, Eugene R. Owens, Bernard K. Barr, Jeffrey I. Parker, Larry Jr. Bolden, Anthony C. Paschel, Philip R. Braswell, Michael T. Jr. Patton, Erik P. Brown, Terrence M. Peyton, Edricke L. Bullard, Ivan Phoreman, James Jr. Cade, Nathaniel Powell, Crispus A. Casey, Paul D. Proctor, Brian C. Casper, Robert A Jr. Raines, Gerald J. Catlin, Chris G. Robinson, Charles F. Catten, Robert S. Rooks, Christopher K. Chapman, Timothy L Roots, James B. Checkley, Earl W. Royal, Geoffrey S. Clark, Terrence L. Schlicker, George N. Jr. Clay, Andre R. Scott, Robert B. Colield, Anthony K. Shropshire, Kenneth W. Jr Conley, James S. III Smith, Otis B. III Cox, Joseph L. IV Smith, Quawan A. Crawford, Lonnie L Jr. Smith, Walter V. Crawford, Mark A. Taylor, James A. Dechabert, Renee J. Taylor, William H. III Dorham, Elliott T. Tolson, Evan J. Drayton, Kimberly I. Turner, Troy J. Elliott, Carlton T. Tyson, Cleveland Jr. Ellis, Anthony M. Walker, Mickey M. III Faxio, John A. Wallace, Arthur W. Jr. Fuller, Wardell C. Walthall, Bryan E. Glover, Anthony S. Wesley, Curtis L. Jr. Goodson, Robert T. II White, Benjamin A. Graham, Darrell A. Williams, David Green, Michael E. Young, Tara C. 264 The United States Air Force Academy Colorado Springs, Colorado Air Force Academy emblem Military aviation is basically a creation of the twentieth century. Its ramifications in warfare were unknown at the beginning of this century. Those who are identified with it as their basic means of military endeavors do not go back very far in history. On December 17, 1903, Wilbur and Oliver Wright made history when they flew their machine for some 59 seconds near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Nearly twenty years later when the United States entered World War I in 1917, this country did not have one armed aircraft. As a result, American pilots flew British and French planes in combat. The development of American warplanes lagged considerably at the end of World War I because of the fact that peace had come. Even when it was realized that military aircraft were an essential ingredient in military affairs, blacks were barred from any program in which they were used. The United States began large scale production of military aircraft in 1940, but even then, there did not seem to be any measure of a future for blacks. In spite of the fact that several flight schools were sponsored for blacks, none of the graduates from these schools were accepted for flight training by the Army Air Corps until 1941 when the Tuskegee program was initiated. In a manner of speaking, America went through and won World War I with what many referred to as two different Air Forces. The Army had its Army Air Corps with its several Air Forces, and the Navy had its Air Force, including the Marine Corps. An amendment to the National Security Act reorganized the American military forces and the new United States Air Force became a major unit of the Department of Defense. Twelve years later, three blacks entered the United Air Force Academy as cadets. Since that time, blacks have participated in all aspects of Air Force life. This continues to be the practice today, including blacks in the Space Program. 265 Many blacks become members of the Cadet Wing each year at the Air Force Academy. This consists of forty squadrons in an aggregate of four groups of ten squadrons each. In 1977, Cadet Edward A. Rice of New Mexico became the first black to be designated Wing Commander. Other blacks have held poisitions in the Academy that were as historic in nature as Rice's appointment. The lists that follow show the black graduates for the Air Force Academy through 1984 and the blacks on class lists since that time. 266 BLACK GRADUATES AND CLASS UNIT FOR UNITED STATES AIR FORCE ACADEMY 1963-1993 Class of 1963 Brown, Ralph Benjamin Jr. Bush, Charles Vernon Harrison, Booker Payne, Isaac Sanders IV Henderson, Clyde Ray Sims, Roger Bernard Jones, Raymond John McDonald, Michael Class of 1964 Meredith, Keith Sarrono Gregory, Frederick Drew Nelson, Michael Vincent Parks, Reginald Darnell Class of 1965 Rhaney, Mahlon Clifton Jr. Beamon, Arthur Leon Ross, Joseph Dean Jr. Plummer, Bentley Vaughn Rucker, Raymond Ivon Jr. Thomas, Charles Albert Slade, John Benjamin Jr. Wiley, Fletcher Houston Class of 1973 Class of 1967 Abraham, Robert Earl Cunningham, Thomas Lee Baker, Richard Alphonso Belton, Robert Marcus Class of 1968 Butler, Ernest Edgar Jr. Ecung, Maurice Dunn, Arthur Lee Jr. Gibson, Samuel Bernard Gilbert, Robert Lee Groves, Weldon Kenneth Jr. Harrison, Herbert Arnold Marshall, Marion Anthony Hodges, Rudnaldo Moore, Francis Martin Lewis, Gerald Elliott Thompson, James Edward Mitchell, David Lynn Mitchell, Joseph Ralph Jr. Class of 1969 Mitchell, Orderia Fleming Hopper, John Dowl Jr. Richardson, Donald Lee Howland, Walter Theodore Stallworth, Charles Edward Little, Kenneth Harlan Thompson, William Lamont Love, James Edward Way, Spencer Jr. Spooner, Richard Edward Stevenson, Kenneth Edward Jr. Class of 1974 Berry, William Monroe III Class of 1970 Bryant, Frederic Burnett Jr. Arnold, Harry Caldwell, Richmond Harold Jr. Battles, Dorsey Barry Collins, Dennis Francis Bowie, Harold Valtino Jr. Crenshaw, Ronald Lee Bryant, Robert Steven Hairston, Carleton Perry Elliott, Norman Lynn Lackette, Emory Will Jr. Jones, Reuben David Jr. McAlpin, Sherman English Keys, George Randolph Jr. Murphy, Franklin Mohr, Dean Burgette Jr. Robinson, Neal Theriault Scott, Darryl Allsion Class of 1971 Smith, Clarence Donald Jr. Banks, Reginald Irving Tarleton, Gadson Jack III Edmondson, William Emanuel Timberlake, Marion Alvin Jr. Jennings, Ernest Ray Walker, Philip Enoch Martin, Curtins Jerome Watson, Ronald Wayne Rogers, Robert Pius Jr. Webb, Lance Carleton Sprott, Robert Edsel Watson, Orrin Sherman Class of 1975 White, Leon Gregory Benjamin, Philip Gill II Wimberly, Bruce Paul Bready, Alvia Cason, Wilbert Jr. Class of 1972 Cosby, Willie James III Bassa, Paul Jr. Crenshaw, Larry Dean Franklin, George Edmund Jr. 267 Graves, Jeffrey Conrad Robinson, Vernon Lucius III Hargrove, Julius Lynn Scott, Lynn Monet Kendall, Phillips Louis Shropshire, Theodore Vernon Osborne, William Blaine Singletery, James Roberts, Randy Watson Smith, Gregory Franklin Smith-Harrison, Leon Ismael Wallace, Frank Lee Whitley, Kenneth Lee Wells, Kennard Rodney Williams, Douglas Leonard II White, Kenneth Ray Class of 1976 Class of 1978 Allen, Calvin Louis Allen, Martin Walter Benton, Jimmie Lee Clemons, Russell Lewis Butler, Michael Wayne Clethen, Eric Lamont Campbell, Stephen Carver Cooper, Gary Lee Correia, Stanley Charles Cox, Andrew Howard Crosley, Hilton Charles Crowe, Lelvin Jr. Dantzler, Willie Carl Dean, Garry Charles Davis, William Rodney Drake, Ricky James Dorman, Glenn Albert Gilden, Reginald Juan Felder, Lloyd Richey Gilmore, Samuel Lee Jr. Franklin, William Houston Gravatt, Wayne Kirk Gandy, Edward Rhone, Jr. Harrison, Oliver Walter Garner, Larry Earl Hawkins, Michael Antonio Gray, Robert Monterio Henderson, Herbert Hoover Jr. Hoyes, Michael Bertrand Hicks, John Edward Johnson, Anthony Richard Holder, Livingston Lionel Jr. Kyle, Gary Arthur Lankford, Morgan Jay Levell, Edward Andrew III Lawrence, Michael David Macklin, Winfred Hardy Jr. Lee, Lyman Anthony Jr. Manson, Harold Craig Mason, Linwood Jr. Miller, Michael Preston Mills, Authur Lee Jr. Norris, Johnnie Ethel Jr. Rice, Edward Augustus Jr. Palms, Wilfred Gladstone Richardson, Anthony Pannell, Garland Jerome Shaw, William Jefferson Powers, Anart William Jr. Simons, James Theodore Jr. Reed, Raymond Jr. Stewart, Moses Jr. Ross, Dave Morris Temple, David John Williams, Gregory Woodfork, Isaac Keith Williams, John Frederick Wrenn, Mark Leroy Williams, Mark Ronald Williams, Roderick Milton Class of 1979 Alston, Stephen Maurice Class of 1977 Austin, Christopher Lynn Adams, Craig Payton Belt, James Michael Bailey, Zachary Eugene Blake, Gregory Nathaniel Balanciere, Milton Gabriel III Bordenave, Paul Basil Jr. Clegg, Robert Stanley Brown, Al Christopher Cosby, Ricky Joe Brundidge, Gregory Lynn Crafton, Wilson David Jr. Colvin, James Thomas Jr. Cromer, Dejuan Donald, Edward Gregory Cross, Michael Anthony Dubose, Ted Gipson, Anthony Jerome Duvall, Reginald Alfred Grady, Walter Anthony Jr. Faulkner, Paul Edward Johnson, Sterling Anthony Francois, Frank Jr. Jones, Clarence Douglas Jr. Gilchrist, Lenue Jr. Jones Daryl Lafayette Hall, Richard Patrick Lee, William Charles Harris, Junious Leo III Lyle, Harron Von Holmes, Reginald Carwin McReynolds, James Clifton Jr. Jones, Vernon Dale Parker, Thomas Gary Leonard, Steven Douglas Peters, Burnett William III Maxwell, Richard Maurice Raichford, Monroe Jose Mitchell, Verner Devone 268 Murry, Curtis L. Butler, Craig Alan Osler, Benjamin Franklin Campbell, Andre Kazuo Pate, Walter Randolph Jr. Carroll, Marvin Dee Pearson, Ricardo Clark, David Anthony Petterson, Hermes Juan Jr. Cloud, Albert Thomas Jr. Pointer, Ronald Lynn Coleman, Clarence J. C. Jr. Ramirez, Juanito Estebaa Cox, Michael Andre Rayfield, William L. II Dennis, Sheldon Robinson, Eddie Derry, Heyward Jr. Sawyer, Willis Elmer Jr. Dismuke, Theophys Danier Smith, Gregory Lee Dortch, Joseph C. Sowards, Mark Anthony English, Nelson William Thomas, Michael Allan Evans, Adolphus Jr. Warner, Curt Elliott Garvin, Eric Darryl Watkine, Steven David Griffin, Dress Catera Guess, James Allen Jr. Class of 1980 Gunter, Gurnie Cornelius Jr. Adams, Daniel Sinclair Jr. Handy, Dexter Raphael Alexander, David Lavone III Harris, Timonthy Alan Ball, Shelby Gregory Hasty, Thomas Jefferson III Batts, Stephen Michael Ingram, Mark Everrett Benjamin, Gail Frances Jenkins, Craig Michael Benjamin, Vaughn Philip,Jr. Johnson, Ernest Jerome Jr. Benn, Mack IIl Jones, Reginald Lewis Best, James Henry Knight, Gregory G. Burrell, Hugh Francis Manning, Kelvin Monroe Campbell, Jeffrey Oikawa Perry, Phillip Leon Campbell, Patrick Edward Phillips, Charles Edward Jr. Desbordes, David Anthony Richardson, Ernest Ikuo Floyd, Kevin Steven Rosier, Isaac Jr. Fortson, Michael Loren Silas, Michael Owen Glenn, Michael Leslie Smith, Kenric Gray, Ronald Patrick Stevens, Cecil Doyle Jr. Gunn, Willie Arthur Steward, Alfred James Harris, Andre William Stewart, Freddie Jr. Hill, Walter Bryan Streeter, Xavier L. Jones, William Jr. Wallace, Everton Ricardo Knuckles, Gwendolyn Wright, Robert Franklin Jr. Lester, Thomas Jr. Mack, Oscar Jr. Class of 1982 Mallory, Patrick Anthony Bankole, Cullen Raphael Marshall, Brian Barnes, Marion Edmund,III Payton, Timothy James Berry, Carson Clifford Robinson, Thomas Elwood Jr. Bizzell, William Andrew Ross, Michael Donnell Buchanan, Julia Marie Saxon, Frank W. Christian, Nathaniel Dean Sears, Alvin Darrel Craft, Raymond Scott Jr. Strickland, Robert Henry Jr. Davis, Earl Quintin Turman, Beverly Carol Davis, Elton Douglas Upshur, Robert Adrian Jr. Davis, Howard D. Jr. Walters, Donald Eric Davis, Michael Nathaniel Warr, Datanian Duncan, Marc Bentley White, Michael Philip Francisco, Raymond Anthony Woodland, Paul Stanley Graham, Nancy Francine Hamilton, Gregory James Class of 1981 Hill, Larry Debernis Anderson, Alan Keith Hithe, Trcy Anthony Andrews, Dale Howard, Richard Nelson II Blount, Robert Jr. Hunigan, Kirk Alan Brooks, Frank Kelley Jr. Jackson, Walter Burks, Eric S. Jackson, Walter Leo, Jr James, George F. III 269 Jarrell, Allen Kenneth Hunter, Raymond Alexander Johnson, Jonnie Johnson, Roger Eugene Johnson, Thomas Leo Johnson, Steven Blaine Jones, Daryl Patrick Jones, Charles Derek Jones, Jerome Shedrick Jones, Herbert Hoover Jr. Lewis, Gregory Lloyd Lewis, Errol Ivan Lofton, Victor Earl Lefton, Rickey Oliver Mack, Lin Anthony McCray, Cleveland Roy Maize, Robert Darryl McDaniel, Donald Anthony Marayh, Vivet Vivien Moore, Kyle Rodney Mason, John L. Jr. Peart, Michael Anthony Moragne, Jeffrey Arnett Peterson, Eugene Gordon Jr. Payne, Glenn Ray Pratt, Bryan Phillip Richards, Thomas L. Richardson, Derrick Malone Riles, Jeffery Maurice Robinson, Donovan o'Neal Roath, Anthony Sterling Rogers, John Frederick III Robinson, Kenneth Lemar Samuda, Eric Frank Shelton, Cynthia Maria Sears, Emanuel Oliver Singletery, Rodney Simmons, Richard Irving Smith, Elva Donell Simpson, Dorothy Elaine Smith, James Earl III Singleton, Harold Leonard Jr. Smith, Kathryn Luberta Smith, Donald Ray Stevenson, Martha Yvette Sullivan, Konda Huff Stevenson, Mary Y. Tingman, Kenneth Royce Temple, Alan Joseph Valentine, Le Angelo West, Steven A. Veal, Kenny White, Alex J. Washington, Erwin Vermont Williams, Darryl Atwell Cecil Williams, Bernard Samuel Jr. Williams, Edward Lee Williams, Troy Michael Willis, Cynthia Winston, Moses Bassanio IV Wolters, Tod Daniel Yancy, Daniel McKinley Class of 1983 Class of 1984 Alkens, Johnny III Alken, Charles Henry Jr. Anderson, Nicole Patrice Allen, Cheryl Anne Babers, Alonzo Carl Aubert, Steven Fitzgerald Bagby, David Brian Baker, Herman Lee Jr. Brisbon, Harris Leonard Barrant, Winston I Brown, Virginia Gale Bell, Melody Charamaine Bullock, Jay Patrice Bethea, Mark I Cannon, Kevin Andrew Billups, Aundra Errol Carter, Norris Emil Boyd, Robin Denise Cephas, Earl Franklin Jr. Burke, John Carmeron Childress, Iris Ruth Calderon, Joseph Philip Collins, Brian Derek Chatman, Cleophus Dwane Corbett, Dorian Isiah Clark, Andrea Denise Dooley, Bryan Paul Clark, Warren Howard Evans, Quintin Apollodorus Conway, Norphesia Gail Gibbs, Gregory Charles Crews, Alfred Jr. Gobern, Alexis Martin Jr. Dawson, Jay Wesley Gore, Kevin Anthony Dieudonne, Carl Henri Gould, Patrick Alan Dixon, Charles Isaac Grant, Cecil Alphonso Jr. Drew, Benjamin Alvin Jr. Graves, Ronald Earl Dugue, Brett Angelo Hall, Nathaniel Craig Dulaney, Keith Ladon Harris, Charles Henry Jr. Elliott, Grady Narvell Jr. Harris, Johnnie Claude Jr. Fisher, Chrlstopher St. Mark Head, Robert Lee Jr. Freeman, Myron Lee Hockaday, Cleophas Sandy Jr. Glass, George Holloway, Theodore Patrick Glass, Robert Charles Jr. Hudson, Tony Dean Gomes, Marie Elena 270 Greer, Byron Lee Byrd, Edward Lee Griffis, Craig Eugene Cameron, Von Micole Hamilton, Caleb Leonard Carter, Miguel Angel Hargrove, Reginald Pierre Cleaves, Chevalier Phipps Harris, William James Jr. Collins, Colleen Adele Healy, Steven Joseph Corns, Toi Vonise Hill, Douglas Edward Dawkins, Keith Alphonso Holmes, Stewart Emmit Jr. Devane, Mark Winthriop Johnson, David Charles Dixon, Kevin William Johnson, Stephen Troy Dobbs, Keric Keith Jones, Marvin Earl Dorsey, Alfred Maxwell Jr. King, Konrad Durante, Paris Anton Leblanc, Stewart Michael Eady, Monica Jeanelle Malone, Michael Lee Evans, Kenneth Charles Martin, Mark Anthony Gibbs, Gregory Laurence McClary, Wayne Hoyt Gilmore, Robert Earl McGlotten, Douglas Lyman Gilyard, Reginald Harold Milteer, Michael Norman Gordon, Eric Leon Milton, Elbert Jr. Griffith, Rodney Neal Moore, Lee Griggs, Gordon James Myers, Chris Anthony Harris, Philecia Lea Owens, John Edward Hatchett, Danielle Latrease Petteway, Malcolm Dylan Hayes, Jesse Doddridge IV Phanord, Bettina Anne Haynes, Victor Charles Phifer, Julia Carol Hearndon, Harold Thomas Jr. Prince, John Henry Jr. Hussain, Kobir Randall, Ivan Todd Jones, Charles Edward Jr. Reaves, Irving Walter Jones, William Archer Jr. Revels, Allen Roosevelt Jordan, Jonathan Darnell Ross, Hubert Anthony Marshall, Gregory Rucker, Sharon Lavonne Mason, Gerald Murray Scott, Leon Clinsee Jr. McElhannon, Neal Bernard Smith, Eugenio Roberto McKnight, Ivan Seymon Smith, Marcel Renel Moore, Vernon Ladon Stron, Crystal Lorrayne Paige, Clive Anthony Suber, Craig James Perry, David Frederick Douglas Tann, Martin Curtis Randolph, Mark Joseph Taylor, John David Richardson, Darrell Keith Thom, Maxie Curenous Ross, Arthur Jr. Valentine, Fred L. Jr. Russell, Frank Eustace II Wickliffe, Carlton P. Sampson, Rodney Nelson Williams, Anthony Wayne Scott, Alton Jerome Williams, Daniel Ellis Seals, Regan Wayne Williams, David Herbert Simmons, Cedric Demetris Williams, Douglas Sowell, Michael Terrance Willis, Cedric Cornell Stewart, Dennis James Street, Christopher L. Class of 1985 Streeter, Charles Anthony Aycock, Kent Darryl Washington, Joyce Denise Baker, Robert Kazuo Washington, Robert Aaron Banks, Kenneth Weathersby, George Bruce Barnes, Glenn Derrick Wiggins, Joseph Jr. Bessellieu, Susan Pearlinda Williams, Albert Harry Black, Michael Barnard Williams, Frank Quintel Blackmon, Elihu Robert Wright, Wanda Arlene Bridgers, Matthew Xavier Broussard, Kerri Loretta Class of 1986 Brown, Gerald Quinton Armstrong, Merrill Frederick Brown, Regina Jeanise Batts, Alan Leon Brown, William Curtis Beaufils, Igor Fitzgerald Burns, Bennie Lee Jr. Brooks, Christopher Lemmel 271 Brown, Eugene Aldolphus Jr. Williams, John Allen Bumpus, William Michael Wilson, Dwayn Elliot Burfict, Samuel Wilson, Nathaniel Joseph Jr. Caldwell, David Arthur Wood, Yolandea Michelle Calhoun, Paul Raymond Jr. Wright, Michael Wayne Carter, Don Durant Wright, Paul Wayne Chambers, Victor Brian Vickers, John Frederick Chandler, George Elmer II Waters, Denise Yvette Christie, Richard Westley III White, Patricia Clark, Richard Milo Clay, Byron Keithe Class of 1987 Cook, Raynard Jamal Abbott, James Earl Jr. Dennis, Warren Delane Abercrombie, David II Eddins, Timothy Lee Allen, James Terrence Flournory, Martin Lloyd Auzenne, Joshua Paul Golden, Northan Frederick Beneovil, Marie Anne Goldsmith, Stafford L. Jr. Branche, Michael Charles Graves, Johnnie Joel Broussard, Byron K. Green, Curtis Lamar Brown, Billy Bob Jr. Greenlea, Willie Yancey Brown, Donald LaRue Harrison, Arcolar Rosella Brown, Lucy Ann Hawkins, Bruce Wayne Jr. Brown, Terrence Adrian Horton, Andre Michael Brundidge, Lawrence Alvin Hudson, Derrick Keith Butler, Rhett Leroy Huguley, Harold III Campbell, Gregory Antonio Ingram, Henry Oliver Jr. Clewis, Robert Vance I Johnson, Deborah Lynn Coffey, Lavanson Crenor III Johnson, Theron Eugene Day, Robert Eugene Jr. Lopes, John Anthony Dingle, Levenchi Larosa Love, Ricky Alan Eaton, Howard Eizie III Lowman, Keon Jr. Elmore, Carson Andrew Martin Carl Ray Evans, Patricia Mayfield, Leon Christopher Fisher, Wayne Andrew McClean, Scott Darren Fitch, Linda Genevieve McCullough, Vanessa Flournoy, Shawn Robinson McDonald, Maurice Devon Fortson, Myron Keith Montgomery, Ronald Eulas Gray, James Randolph III Moreland, Christopher James Harris, Darrin Wesley Norris, Kenneth Jacques Harris, John Hardy Payne, Manuel Alfred Holman, Lillian Pebbles Pickett, Marquis Delafayette Holmes, Joseph A Roberts, Sanford Eugene II Homer, LeRoy Wilton Jr. Robinson, Bobby Leigh II Honesty, Carlos Leroy II Rodgers, Rickey Sylvester Houston, Anthony Maurice Saulny, Stanley M. Jr. Howard, Walter Glenn Scott, Todd Jeffrey Hunter, Eric Jay Simon, Daryl Ritchard Jeffcoat, James Tyron Smith, Courtney Leonard Johnson, Kymberli Sterlene Speight, Joel Scott Jones, Alain Louis Maurice Stukes, Joaquin DuBois Jones, Elijah Andreaval III Thompson, Ivan Gerard Jones, Tracy Alan Tillman, Antonio Willard Jordan, Eric Antoine Toliver, Renea Lynette Lewis, Brenda Setsuko Veazie, Christopher Martin Mallette, Frank Eldred Vickers, John Frederick Martin, Kevin Charles Waters, Denise Evette Moore, Carolyn Ann White, Patricia Irene Moore, Dennis Keith Wilburn, Joe Nathan Morris, Michele Rene Williams, Albert Clinton II Nelson, James Reginald W. Williams, Calvin Bernard Ringgold, Lloyd Earl Jr. Shedd, William Keith 272 Shines, Franklin Pierce Jr. Turk, Roy Cleveland Jr. Smith, Rudolph Anthony Jr. Walker, Christopher Sean Well Taylor, John William Jr. Walker, Michael D'Anthony Toliver, Michael Keith Washington, Anthony Marcel Turner, Edward Earl Weaver, Nichole Vernice Veney, Samuell Russell Whittaker, Emily Ann Watkins, Jerome Williams, Amanda Olivia Weeks, Alexander Jr. Williams, Noel Flenoy Willoughby, Robert Wayune Williams, Richard Aloysius Wilson, Stacey Anne Wilson, Darryl Lynn Wilson, William Jeffrey Wilson, Dwane Lloyd Wilson, Terrence Van Class of 1988 Adkins, George Curtis Class of 1989 Aiken, Mark Gregory Acker, Lawyer Lee III Barbosa, Jorge Pedro Fortes Barr, Lafayette Anthony Boyd, Marcus Aurelius Bell, Javier Luis Brown, Cheryl Lyn Booker, Albert Brown, Earl Dean Jr. Booth, Charles Anthony Brown, Harold Dean Jr. Braxton, Eric Matthew Burroughs, Louis Maurice 3rd Burtley, Bryan Michael Butler, Jeffrey TerreIl Carothers, Alexander E. Cherry, Sophelia Elon Clark, Trevor Martin Cole, Philbert Alderman Jr. Cochran, David Vernon Crain, Jeffery Kent Cochran, Gregory Eugene Davis, Darrel Taylor Copeland, Thomas Joseph Davis, John Charles Dabney, Denis Paul Dixon, Lisa Marie Darey, Roland Maurice Jr. Emmert, Patrick Rowland Earle, Stephen Matthew Glenn, Darryl LeMon Erwin, Harry Lennon Jr. Grant, Roger Hugh Ewing, Shawnie Raea Graves, Erik Lemont Finn, Karen Anchiu Griggs, Linda Marie Franklin, Gregory Donald Haley, David Lamont Garrett, Ronald Phoesha Hammond, Michael Carver Jr. Golden, Tracey Marvin Haynes, Kerby II Haith, Andre Bernard Hicks, Malcolm Wayne Henry, Joseph Esnunday III Hodges, Chiquita Jean Hughes, Kevin Jud Horner, Dawn Michele Jackson, Cedric B. Hunt, Jeffrey Robert Jackson, Steven Miguel Jackson, Linwood Joseph Jr. Jones, Kelly Crockett Jenkins, Eric Rolando Keasley, Dawn Delayne Johnson, Clarence Jr. King, Kevin Wayne Jones, Roy Vicente James Lasure, Anthony Maurice Kelley, James Allen Levy, Karl Andrew Roosevelt Lewis, Raymond Keith Lewis, Andre Anton Miller, Michael Andrew Lewis, Richard Lee Jr. Mims, Averyu Dale Lockwood, Michael Joseph Minter, Darrell Cleophis Mason, Thomas James Jr. Mitchell, Terence Burrell McMillan, Michelle Yvette Moore, Jonathan Nathaniel Murray, Ivan Donnel Murphy, Ricky Ron-Nay O'Neal, Phillip George Newton, Maurice Alcorn Phillips, Keith Lloyd Nicholson, Anthony Bernard Reed, Randall Preston, Lisa Joy Roberson, Anthony Jay Profit, Michael Keith Roberts, Karl Roberts, Quinton Delmer Robinson, Burtis Bradwyck Roberts, Stephen Patrick Rosser, Robert Boras Speight, Calvin Bernard Singleton, James Frederic Taylor, Ellery Roosevelt Stephens, Michael James Thomas, Michael Toliver, David 273 Turman, Oliver Lamont Ware, Ramon Dedrick Warrier, Steven Kelly Washington, LaShawn Watson, Pernell Bruce Williams, Lunon Dwight Williams, Timothy Dean Young, Dirk Lavern 274 The United States Coast Guard Academy New London, Connecticut Air Force Academy emblem The United States Coast Guard Academy is the only one of the American military academies that selects its students from an annual nationwide competition. Congressional nominations are not required and there are no geographical quotas. Any United States citizen who is unmarried and between the ages of 17 and 21 may compete for an appointment to this prestigious institution. Cadets begin four years of training and education leading to bachelor degrees and commissions as Ensigns in the United States Coast Guard. As a service, the Coast Guard is unique. The Coast Guard performs a variety of missions vital to this nation and the international community as a part of the Department of Transportation each day of the year. During wartime, Coast Guard responsibilities increase as it joins the United States Navy and becomes a vital link in this country's national defense. The Coast Guard Academy traces its roots back to July 31, 1876 when legislation creating a school of instruction for Coast Guard officers was enacted by Congress. It was not until the following year in May, however, that the first cadet training program literally got underway when nine cadets reported aboard the US Revenue Cutter J. C. DOBBIN in New Bedford, Massachusetts. Although the location of the Adademy has changed several times through the years, the mission of the Academy has not changed significantly. The Academy was created to prepare United States citizens for service in the United States Coast Guard -- the armed service that serves humanity. Since the first group of cadets reported aboard DOBBIN, the Academy has continued to produce many officers ready to answer the call of duty. The first black cadet, Javis L. Wright, however, did not arrive in New London, Connecticut until 1955. Unfortunately, Mr. Wright had to resign for medical reasons and he did not graduate from the Academy. The next black to enter the Academy reported in the summer of 1962. Merle J. Smith graduated four years later in the Class of 1966 and became the first commissioned black graduate of the United States Coast Guard Academy. Since 1966, there have been 51 other black graduates including the Coast Guard Academy's first two (and only) black women, Angela Dennis and Daphne Reese, who graduated in 1983, only three years after the first group of women (14) graduated. 275 The Coast Guard Academy Cadet Corps number approximately 900 annually. Though the number of black graduates is small, the Academy is hopeful for the future. It is committed to identifying and recruiting qualified black youth to enter its grounds as cadets and graduate four years later as future leaders of the United States Coast Guard and this nation. 276 GRADUATES AND CLASS LIST OF UNITED STATES COAST GUARD ACADEMY 1966-1994 Class of 1966 Class of 1978 Class of 1987 Smith, Merle J. Brown, Manson Berkeley, Mark, Mark D. Finney, Daniel Class of 1968 Harrison, Benjamin Class of 1989 Boyd, Kenneth D. Loadholt, Joseph Adams, Delano G. Steverson, London E. Richards, Edward Cunningham, Daryl Smith, Cleon Class of 1970 Class of 1990 Pickrum, William W. Class of 1979 Bell, Darryl Mobley, Robert E. Green, Walter E. Jr. Class of 1972 Rice, Charles Johnston, Michael J. Brown, Errol Spears, Robert S. Jr. Makell, William J. Demmitt, Melvin H. Wright, James W. McCartney, Scott S. Dupree, Anthony J. Jones, Joseph H. Class of 1980 Class of 1991 Thornton, Robert B. Callwood, Ausin F. Newbill, Calvin Vaughn, Woodrow P. Gandy, Theodore F. Williams,.Charles Class of 1992 Class of 1981 Adams, Christopher Class of 1973 Walker, Roderick Davis,. Roland Brown, Michael W. Penn, Allen W. Class of 1982 Class of 1993 Upshaw, Anthony Davis, Karl D. Class of 1974 Kelly, Robert Lamberson, Eric Class of 1983 Marshall, Edward Thompson, Allen L. Dennis, Angela Reese, Daphne Class of 1994 Class of 1975 Roberts, Christopher Allen, Jimmy Flynn, Elijah Berry, Troy Gusman, Wayne D. Class of 1984 Brisco, Simone Lesesne, Patrick Nedd, Kevin M. Clark, Benjamin Tilghman, Tim E. Skillings, Peter Duggs, Edward Lockwood, Sharon Class of 1976 Class of 1985 Pruitt, John Lawrence, Dennis Broadway, John T. Robinson, Bernard Rodgers, Sharif Class of 1977 Class of 1986 Burns, Earl A. Baynes, Steven T. Odom, Curtis Martin, Gregory W. 277 CHAPTER X STATISTICAL FACTORS ON BLACKS IN THE U. S. MILITARY An element of DoD Directive 1350.2 states that "The Department of Defense Equal Opportunity Program" requires each component to establish and prepare Affirmative Action Plans (AAP) and to submit annual assessments of progress towards meeting the AAP goals. An affirmative action plan identifies specific areas which are considered as having equal opportunity significance. Affirmative Action Plans are established to quantify goals, timetables and management accountability of equal opportunity objectives. The AAP outlines actions the Components will take to achieve stated objectives. All Components are required to report on ten common subject areas as a part of their AAP: o Recruiting/Accessions o Assignment o Evaluation o Training o Promotion o Discipline o Separation o Recognition o Utilization of Skills o Discrimination Complaints In summary, an AAP is a set of specific and result-oriented procedures to which a Component commits itself to apply good faith effort to achieve a desired goal. The primary goal of the AAP is the permanent integration of the concepts of equal opportunity into every aspect of Service life, thereby enhancing combat readiness and mission accomplishment. The multi-faceted approach to achieving equal opportunity has been imminently successful within the Department of Defense. The numbers of equal opportunity formal racial complaints have decreased, and black representation within each Military Service has increased dramatically. As of September 1984, there were approximately 2,100,000 military persons on active duty in the Armed Forces. Of that number, approximately 403,000 were black. As of June of 1980, the total number of persons in the military service was 1,786,830. Of that number, 406,232, or 22.7 percent, were black. Between 1974 and 1984, the total percentage of black officers in the Armed Forces increased from 2.6 to 6.2 percent of all the officers in the DoD. Black enlisted personnel increased from 15.7 percent in 1974 to 21.1 percent of the total enlisted force in 1984. In 1974, there were only 850 black E-9s. In 1984, just ten years later, there were over 2,000 blacks in the grade of E-9, the top enlisted grade in the Armed Forces. In June of 1990, this figure was 2,494. There was a decrease of 430 in this category in 1990. See page 284 for the 1990 figures. In July of 1981, Secretary of Defense Weinberger signed a memorandum to the Service Secretaries pointing out that effective Equal Opportunity Programs could significantly improve the cohesiveness, readiness and the total defense capability of the nation. The memoran- 279 dum charged the Service Secretaries to ensure a prompt and impartial investigation of discrimination complaints, racial and sexual intimidation, including discrimination and harassment. This is the cornerstone upon which each Military Department builds its discrimination complaint program. Each Component was told to ensure that procedures dealing specifically with the resolution of discrimination complaints be published at every level, including the lowest command level, and that each member of the command be made fully aware of implementation of policies. BLACK ENLISTED PERSONNEL AS A PERCENT OF ALL DOD ENLISTED PERSONNEL 1973-1989 Year Percent ------------------------------------------------------ 1973 14.0 1975 16.1 1977 17.4 1979 21.2 1981 22.1 1983 21.7 1984 21.1 1985 21.1 1986 21.1 1987 21.5 1988 22.0 1989 22.3 280 BLACK OFFICERS AS A PERCENTAGE OF ALL DOD OFFICERS 1973-1989 YEAR PERCENT ------------------------------------------------------- 1973 2.5 1975 3.1 1977 3.9 1979 4.7 1981 5.3 1983 5.8 1984 6.2 1985 6.4 1986 6.4 1987 6.5 1988 6.7 1989 6.7 BLACK OFFICERS ON ACTIVE DUTY - BY SERVICE 1971-1989 End of AIR MARINE Fiscal Yr ARMY NAVY FORCE CORPS TOTAL ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1971 5419 547 2196 273 8435 1973 4682 805 2248 372 8107 1975 4957 905 2615 570 9047 1977 5971 1203 3114 672 10960 1979 6601 1437 4088 705 12831 1983 9154 2100 5568 856 17678 1985 10659 2264 5715 935 19573 1986 11004 2422 5762 949 20137 1987 11031 2471 5785 960 20147 1988 11188 2606 5665 974 20433 1989 11477 2660 5681 1031 20957 281 BLACK WOMEN IN THE ARMED FORCES YEAR OFFICERS PERCENT ENLISTED PERCENT 1971 431 3.3 4236 14.4 1972 421 3.3 4798 15.1 1973 442 3.5 6633 15.7 1974 532 4.1 10363 16.9 1975 644 4.7 14425 17.4 1976 714 5.2 17159 18.0 1977 1004 6.7 19163 18.6 1978 1270 7.6 24247 20.8 1979 1677 8.9 21266 23.9 1980 2023 9.4 38841 26.1 1981 2400 10.3 43973 27.4 1982 2984 11.6 46834 28.1 1983 3136 11.8 48052 28.3 1984 3481 12.1 49764 28.9 1985 3650 12.3 52054 29.5 1986 3883 12.3 55347 30.3 1987 4006 12.5 59166 31.3 1988 4178 12.8 61142 32.4 1989 4344 12.9 63961 32.8 282 STATISTICS ON BLACK PERSONNEL IN THE MILITARY SERVICES OFFICERS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Grade No. of Blacks Black Women % of Total Total All Races ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- O-10 1 0 2.7 37 O-9 5 0 4.0 124 O-8 7 0 1.8 389 O-7 20 2 3.6 549 O-6 352 20 2.5 14,327 O-5 1,095 120 3.3 33,043 O-4 3,384 578 6.2 54,239 O-3 8,803 2,197 8.1 108,333 O-2 3,009 887 7.7 38,844 O-1 2,538 685 7.8 32,691 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Totals 19,215 4,489 6.8% 282,600 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- WARRANT OFFICERS W-4 193 0 5.7 3,406 W-3 420 12 7.7 5,424 W-2 936 72 10.7 9,091 W-1 337 36 10.6 3,190 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Totals 1861 120 8.9% 21,111 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ENLISTED PERSONNEL E-9 2,449 35 15.7 15,575 E-8 6,468 226 16.7 38,624 E-7 27,936 2,196 20.4 136,853 E-6 57,214 7,450 23.4 244,822 E-5 89,866 15,335 24.4 367,769 E-4 104,098 21,085 24.0 434,564 E-3 63,449 10,864 22.3 283,949 E-2 30,132 5,021 21.1 142,652 E-1 21,498 2,875 22.2 97,049 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Totals 403,110 65,087 22.9% 1,761,886 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- As of Sept 1990 283 CHAPTER XI BLACK CIVILIAN WORK-FORCE IN THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE In addition to service with military forces, black Americans have faithfully served the defense effort of this nation in a variety of positions as civilians. Non-discrimination in Federal government employment first became a matter of public policy with the passage of the Ramspeck Act in 1940, but no organization was created to monitor or enforce compliance with the policy. During World War II, however, President Roosevelt created two committees on Fair Employment Practice, the first in 1941 and the second in 1943. These committees were authorized to make recommendatons to Federal departments and agencies on how to eliminate discriminatory employment practices, but were not empowered to require that those recommendations be implemented. Prior to that time, discrimination and segregation had been accepted practices in Federal employment. Although non-discrimination became government policy in 1940, the President's Committee on Fair Employment Practice was relatively ineffective. It could receive and investigate complaints, but had limited enforcement powers. Nonetheless, it did much to make government officials and the public aware of discrimination and unequal opportunities for blacks in employment. In March 1944, blacks constituted 11.8 percent of all War Department employees and 14.6 percent of all Navy Department employees. Studies of labor statistics in the federal government during this period indicated that most black civilians were clustered in custodial, laborer, and clerical occupations. This pattern did not drastically change during the next two years, although there were several organizations and new executive orders which attempted to address the situation. The issuance of President Truman's Executive Order calling for equality of opportunity and treatment did begin to make some changes. The integration of the armed forces and the Korean conflict also helped. Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the signing of Executive Order 11246 in 1965 brought new emphasis to anti-discrimination programs in government employment. Concepts of nondiscrimination gave way to equal employment opportunity and affirmative action. The Department of Defense developed affirmative action plans and removed barriers to the employment and promotion of blacks, as well as other protected groups. Although the overall participation rate of blacks in the DoD work force did not change much between 1943 and 1984, blacks entered a wider variety of jobs and occupied much higher grade levels than at any prior time in the history of the Department. There are more high ranking black men and women in the Department of Defense now than ever in its history. Even though the total DoD workforce has decreased, black civilian employees have increased. Blacks are gaining in the Senior Executive Service and in Executive Level positions. They are increasing in the professional employment series, and have moved into managerial and supervisory positions in the General Schedule 285 and Wage Series. They are using the training and development programs throughout DoD to their benefit. Black women, in particular, are advancing from clerical positions to higher grades by participating in the Upward Mobility Program. DoD is helping to facilitate employment of blacks with special efforts such as carrying out Federal Equal Employment Opportunity Programs, Affirmative Action Program Plans, and Managerial Development Programs to enable employees to gain training positions for advancement through the, grade structure. For the first time in its history, the Department has embarked on a program of comprehensive and systematic analysis and planning for civilian affirmative action. DOD ALL PAY SYSTEMS YEARS TOTAL BLACK % % BLACK MALE % BLACK FEMALE 1969 125,124 11.5 1970 115,462 11.4 1971 112,426 11.3 1972 113,087 11.6 1973 109,426 11.8 1974 109,343 11.6 1975 106,066 11.5 1976 108,451 11.8 7.7 4.2 1977 109,034 12.1 7.7 4.4 1978 111,852 12.1 7.6 4.6 1979 106,175 12.1 7.6 4.5 1980 121,484 13.2 7.8 5.4 1981 127,515 13.3 7.6 5.7 1982 130,312 13.4 7.6 5.8 1983 136,258 13.6 7.6 6.0 1984 140,258 13.8 7.5 6.3 1985 154,475 14.3 7.7 6.6 1986 148,205 14.2 7.3 6.9 1987 153,202 14.4 7.3 7.1 1988 150,121 14.5 7.2 7.3 1989 154,597 14.6 7.1 7.5 286 DoD - GENERAL SCHEDULE YEARS TOTAL BLACK % % BLACK MALE % BLACK FEMALE 1969 49,620 7.8 1970 46,800 7.8 1971 45,883 7.7 1972 47,569 8.1 1973 46,945 8.4 1974 49,362 8.6 1975 49,370 8.7 1976 51,810 8.9 3.5 5.6 1977 53,022 9.4 3.6 5.8 1978 55,134 9.6 3.6 6.0 1979 53,886 9.7 3.7 6.0 1980 60,307 10.4 3.8 6.6 1981 65,310 10.8 3.9 6.9 1982 69,617 11.3 4.1 7.2 1983 74,478 11.7 4.2 7.5 1984 79,504 12.2 4.3 7.9 1985 85,955 13.3 4.7 8.6 1986 86,367 13.8 4.6 9.2 1987 91,236 14.0 4.6 9.4 1988 91,034 14.3 4.7 9.6 1989 95,832 14.7 4.8 9.9 DoD - WAGE SYSTEMS YEARS TOTAL BLACK % % BLACK MALE % BLACK FEMALE 1986 75,322 16.8 1970 68,494 16.9 1971 6,261 16.9 1972 65,038 17.0 1974 59,564 16.8 1975 56,316 16.5 1976 56,225 16.7 15.0 1.8 1977 55,554 17/0 15.2 1.8 1978 53,187 17.1 14.9 2.2 1979 49,053 17.0 15.0 2.0 1980 53,294 18.1 15.5 2.6 1981 53,489 17.5 14.9 2.6 1982 51,913 17.1 14.6 2.6 1983 52,890 17.0 14.4 2.6 1984 51,939 17.0 14.2 2.8 1985 44,543 15.7 12.7 3.0 1986 50,741 16.8 13.8 3.0 1987 51,769 17.1 14.0 3.1 1988 48,707 13.7 10.4 3.3 1989 48,203 16.8 13.5 3.3 287 BLACK CIVILIAN WORK FORCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (WAGE GRADE) No. of Black Black % of WG Rating No. of Blacks Females Grade Rating 01 1,777 1,473 47.1 02 2,462 953 40.7 03 1,116 325 31.4 04 2,963 1,240 34.2 05 7,984 1,450 25.7 06 4,073 635 26.2 07 3,809 515 22.5 08 5,390 515 16.4 09 2,944 257 12.7 10 7,599 446 10.5 11 1,528 75 7.3 12 356 8 5.1 13 110 2 4.2 14 38 1 5.6 15 24 1 14.3 Total Black 42,173 Total Black Females 7,896 Total All Races 245,511 Black Percentage of Total 17.2% As of June 1990 288 BLACK CIVILIAN WORK FORCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (WAGE LEADER) No. of Black Black % of WL Rating No. of Blacks Females Grade Rating 01 111 108 52.6 02 165 89 55.2 03 29 11 39.7 04 132 51 38.5 05 326 56 33.4 06 143 21 27.7 07 137 10 22.0 08 154 9 18.8 09 146 6 12.3 10 343 6 7.3 11 52 3 6.1 12 7 0 4.3 13 7 0 3.3 15 0 0 0.0 Total Black 1,757 Total Black Females 370 Total All Races 10,453 Average Black Percentage of Total 16.8% As of June 1990 289 BLACK CIVILIAN WORK FORCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (WAGE SUPERVISOR) No. of Black Black % of WS Rating No. of Blacks Females Grade Rating 01 74 24 43.8 02 98 43 56.6 03 98 20 29.0 04 195 33 23.9 05 372 37 27.7 06 314 34 21.6 07 269 21 13.4 08 262 19 9.3 09 335 16 8.7 10 669 24 8.2 11 163 10 7.5 12 54 2 5.1 13 48 0 6.4 14 122 1 6.6 15 57 1 6.6 16 25 0 4.9 17 3 0 2.0 18 1 0 2.2 19 0 0 0 Total Black 3,164 Total Black Females 285 Total All Races 28,586 Black Percentage of Total 11.1% As of June 1990 290 BLACK CIVILIAN WORK FORCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (GENERAL SCHEDULE) No. of Black Black % of GS Rating No. of Blacks Females Grade Rating 01 358 301 27.3 02 1,084 832 30.4 03 9,037 7,604 28.5 04 17,503 13,942 23.5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Subtotals... 27,982 22,684 25.2% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SUBTOTAL ALL RACES..........110,994 05 19,404 14,700 18.9 06 8,236 6,188 18.2 07 9,703 6,509 15.0 08 1,722 1,042 16.0 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Subtotals... 39,065 28,439 17.5% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SUBTOTAL ALL RACES..........223,388 09 9,553 4,990 12.0 10 661 296 9.8 11 9,755 4,607 9.5 12 7,737 3,217 7.2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Subtotals... 27,703 13,110 9.3% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SUBTOTAL ALL RACES..........296,792 13 921 323 5.3 14 148 46 3.5 15 10 2 1.5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Subtotals... 1,079 371 4.8% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SUBTOTAL ALL RACES..........22,386 16 0 0 17 0 0 18 0 0 Total Black 95,832 Total Black Females 64,604 Total All Races 653,608 Black Percentage of Total 14.7% As of June 1990 291 BLACK CIVILIAN WORK FORCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (GENERAL MANAGERS) Black Black % of Total GM Rating No. of Blacks Females Grade Rating All Races 13 1,803 650 5.4 33,109 14 646 147 3.5 18,418 15 220 46 2.5 8,803 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Totals... 2,669 843 4.4% 60,330 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE) SES Rating No. of Blacks Black % of Rating 01 1 2.3 02 3 3.7 03 3 2.1 04 20 2.2 05 1 0.6 06 0 0.0 Total Black 28 Black Percentage of Total 2.0% Total All Races 1,379 As of June 1990 292 BLACK AMERICANS IN DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE SCHEDULE (Listed in alphabetical order) Mr. Oliver F. Braxton Exec Director for Combat Systems Engineering, Naval Sea Syst Command Arlington, VA Mr. William J. Brown Deputy Dir. for Programs, Productions and Operations Defense Mapping Agency Mr. Donald J. Campbell Deputy Program Director Propulsion SPO Dept of the Air Force Wright-Patterson AFB, OH Dr. George R. Carruthers Senior Astrophyscist Naval Research Laboratory Washington, DC Hon. J. Gary Cooper Asst Secy of the Air Force for Manpower, Reserve Affairs, Installations & Environment The Pentagon Mr. Guy C. Dillworth Technical Director Naval Air Development Center Warminster, PA Mr. Reginald M. Felton Assoc Director, Office of Civilian Personnel Policy Dept of the Navy Arlington, VA Mr. Maurice L. Fowler Asst Deputy for Contracting Electronics Systems Division Air Force Systems Command Hanscom AFB, MA Mr. Calvin G. Franklin Director, DC National Guard OSA Office of the Undersecretary Washington, DC 293 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE SCHEDULE Mr. Daniel R. Gill Director, Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization Office of the Secy of the Army The Pentagon Mr. Robert Goodman, Sr. Special Asst to the Asst Secy of the Navy Arlington, VA Ms. Delores D. Greene Special Asst for Departmental/National Estimates (DIA) Bolling AFB, DC Mr. Archie D. Grimmett Asst. Deputy Chief of Staff for Civilian Personnel US Army, Europe Mr. Claiborne D. Haughton, Jr.* Director, Civilian Equal Opportunity Policy- Office of Deputy Asst Secy of Defense (FM&P) The Pentagon Mr. Olin A. Howard Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff/ Distribution HQ AFLC/DS Dept of the Air Force Wright-Patterson AFB, OH Mr. Anthony W. Hudson Staff Director Personnel Defense Logistics Agency Cameron Station, VA Mr. Robert D. Jack, Jr. Executive Director, Planning and Resources Navy Supply Center Norfolk, VA Dr. Frank B. Johnson Chairman Dept of Chemical Pathology Armed Forces inst of Pathology Washington, DC * Claiborne Haughton was an initiator of the original Department of Defense publication, BLACK AMERICANS IN DEFENSE OF OUR NATION. He has also done extensive research on black recipients of the Medals of Honor. His display on this subject is widely acclaimed. 294 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE SCHEDULE Mr. George L. Jones Asst Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel US Army Material Command Alexandria, VA Dr. Jack O. Lanier Principal Deputy Asst Secy of Defense (Health Affairs) The Pentagon Mr. Harold L. Mabrey Director Procurement and Production US Army Troop Support Cmd St. Louis, MO Ms. Diann L. McCoy Deputy Assistant to Commander International Logistics Center HQ AFLC/ILC Wright-Patterson AFB, OH Mr. Jesse W. McCurdy, Jr. Tech Director, Weapons Eng Div, Naval Air Syst Cmd Arlington, VA Mr. Raymond L. McGadney Asst Director, Office of Civilian Personnel Policy Department of the Navy Arlington, VA Mr. Robert G. Mitchell Head, Navigation Eqpt Section Strategic Systems Programs Office of Asst Secy of the Navy Arlington, VA Mr. Robert L. Norwood Deputy for Space & Strategic Systems, Systems, Office of the Asst Secy of the Army The Pentagon Mr. Paul L. Peeler, Jr. Technical Director Defense Mapping Agency Reston Center 295 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE SCHEDULE Mr. Bill E. Robinson Director DMA Telecommunications Center Deputy Dir for Inf Systems (DMA) Fairfax, VA Mr. Charles G. Sanders Executive Director Life Cycle Support Group Space & Warfare Systems Cmd Arlington, VA Mr. Edward L. Saul Asst General Council (Acquisition) Dept of the Navy Arlington, VA The Hon. John W. Shannon Under Secretary of the Army The Pentagon Dr. Ronald E. Smiley Director, Weapons Evaluation Directorate, Pacific Missile Test Center, Point Mugu, CA Mr. Oral L. Smithers, Jr. Director of Flight Systems Engineering ASD/ENF Dept of the Air Force Wright-Patterson, OH Mr. Frank O. Tuck Deputy Program Director Systems, SPO ASD/SD Wright-Patterson AFB, OH Mr. Daniel Turner Acct and Finance Officer of the Marine Corps Arlington, VA Mr. Samuel J. Worthington Asst to the Deputy Comptroller (IRM) The Pentagon 296 PAST EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE BLACK AMERICANS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Listed in alphabetical order Hon. Clifford Alexander Secretary of the Army Mr. Isaac E. Barbre Deputy Auditor General Army Audit Agency Mr. Marion A. Bowden Deputy for Equal Opportunity Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army, (M&RA) Mr. O. F. Braxton Department Head/Deputy Technical Director, Associate Technical Director, Naval Surface Weapons Center Dr. James I. Bryant Physical Science Administrator Office of Deputy Chief of Staff for Research, Development and Acquisition, US Army Mr. William E. Camblor Assistant Division Engineer for Intergovernmental Affairs, Corps of Engineer, Europe Division, US Army Mr. Jerry L. Calhoun Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve Affairs, and Logistics) Designate Mr. Thomas E. Daniels Deputy Director, Combat Surveilance & Target Acquisition Lab, US Army Electronics R&D Cmd Mr. Fred Davidson, III Deputy Assistant Secretary of Navy (Reserve Affairs) 297 PAST EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE BLACK AMERICANS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Mr. Valeris O. Ewell, Jr. Deputy of Acquisition, Mgmnt Review Agency, Asst Secretary of the Army (Research), Development & Acquisition Mr. Joseph A. Floyd Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Policy and Procedures, Office Deputy Chief of Staff for Supply Maintenance and Transportation Mr. H. Minton Francis Deputy Asst. Secretary of Defense for Equal Opportunity Ms. Claire Freeman Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Civilian Personnel Policy and Requirements) Mr. Donald S. Gray Director, Equal Opportunity Pgms (Military) Office of the Secretary of Defense Mr. Robert O. Jenkins Assistant Deputy for Contracting and Manufacturing Space Division, Air Force Systems Cmd US Army Mr. C. D. Lee Special Assistant to the DCNM (P&FM) Director, Financial Management, Systems Branch Office of Chief of Naval Material Mr. Arnold Meecham Air Force Logistics Command Mr. Mortimer Marshall Director, Construction Standards and Design, Office of the Secretary of Defense 298 PAST EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE BLACK AMERICANS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Mr. Charles F. Martin Chief, Systems and Techniques Defense Mapping Agency Mr. Robert P. Moore Deputy Technical Director/Director, Technology Planning And Assessment Group, Office Of Naval Research Mr. George H. Motley Technical Director, Armament Division, Naval Air Systems Command Headquarters Mr. Walter W. Pattishall Associate Technical Director For Electronic Warfare And Intelligence, US Army Electronics Research And Development Cmd Hon. Percy A. Pierce Assistant Secretary of the Army Research, Development & Acquisition Ms. Norma Louise Powell Director, Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization, Office of the Secretary of Defense Mr. William B. Robertson Asst Dir (Business & Resource Policy) Office of Economic Adjustment, Office of The Asst Secretary Of Defense Mr. James E. Schnell Director, Tactical Computer Systems Center, U. S. Army Comm. - Electronics Command Hon. Delbert Spurlock Assistant Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) 299 PAST EXECUTIVE LEVEL AND SENIOR EXECUTIVE SERVICE BLACK AMERICANS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Mr. Frederick Tillman Chief, Investment Appropriations Division, Directorate of Budget, Office of The Comptroller of the Air Force Ms. Juanita P. Watts Director, Office of Small And Disadvantaged Business Utilization, Office Of The Secretary Of The Army Ms. Gail Berry West Deputy for Equal Opportunity Office of the Secretary of the Air Force Hon. Togo D. West, Jr. General Counsel, Office of the Secretary of Defense Mr. L. Williams Assistant for Hull Mechanical System, Naval Air System Command Headquarters 300 IN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Grateful acknowledgment is extended to the persons listed below, whose time and talents made this publication possible. READERS' REVIEW PANEL: General Colin L. Powell, USA Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff The Pentagon Maj. General Albert Edmonds, USAF Assistant Chief of Staff Systems for Command, Control, Communications and Computers Brig. General Sherian Cadoria, USA, (Ret.) U.S. Total Army Personnel Command Brig. General Lester L. Lyles, USAF DCS Requirements HQ Air Force Systems Command RADM Walter J. Davis, USN Commander Naval District of Washington The Honorable J. Gary Cooper ASAF (MARI&E) The Pentagon The Honorable John W. Shannon Under Secretary of the Army The Pentagon Mrs. Joan M. MacKenzie Staff Assistant to the Deputy Commissioner Immigration & Naturalization Dr. Meredith A. Neizer DACOWITS Chairperson Mr. Claiborne D. Haughton, Jr. Director of Civilian Equal Opportunity Policy The Pentagon Mr. Walter R. Sommerville Chief, Office of Civil Rights United States Coast Guard OTHERS: Col. William Walton Director Military Equal Opportunity Policy (Civilian Personnel Policy/Equal Opportunity) The Pentagon Lt. Col. James E. Love Deputy Director, Training & Research Military Equal Opportunity Policy (Civilian Personnel Policy/Equal Opportunity) The Pentagon Lt. Col. Thomas L. Bain Military Assistant to the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Civilian Personnel Policy/Equal Opportunity) The Pentagon Mr. Therman Jones (Reprint Permission) Mr. Mason Carl Deputy Director WHS Presentations Colonel John Silvera US Army (Retired) Tuskegee Airman Mr. Jim Lawrence Photographs Mr. Harry Wilson Halftones and Contact Prints Ms. Avis Dillon Layout/Design/Typesetting Dr. Leroy L. Ramsey Research/Writing/Editing